UNI VERS) ry OF CAUFORNIA EARTH SCIENCES LIBRARY t:-(6 EAST CARELIA AND KOLA LAPMARK EAST CARELIA AND KOLA LAPMARK DESCRIBED BY FINNISH SCIENTISTS AND PHII^OLOGISTS THEODOR H0M£N HEI.SINGFORS 192 i QeeSRAPH¥ ■ DEP'i EARTH SCIENCS LIBRARY HELSINGFORS 1921 HOLGER SCHILDT, LIMITED PRINTERS PREFACE. After the many wars between Russia and Sweden ichich were fought between the fourteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth centuries, the frcntier of these tivo countries, as settled by the Peace of Stolbova, u'as drawn right across the Finnish land. The territory of the Tavasts, and the smaller part of that of the Carelians, was allotted to Sweden, the former in the centre and west, and the latter in the east, of what is now Finland, while Russia obtained the eastern, and larger, portion of the Carelian land, namely practically all that between the present political frontier on the west and, on the east, the regions round Lake Bielo-ozero and the neighbourhood of the river Dvina. In pre- vious ages the territory of the Carelians had -extended further east and south-east. The part of Finland united to Sweden had a favourable position on the Bal- tic Sea, with its large gulfs. After changing fortunes, which gradually deve- loped both during the long union with Sweden, and during the union of over a hun- dred years duration with Russia, it has lately attained the political freedom which an industrious people needs if it is to maintain its place in the general work of civilisation. Large numbers of the Finns to the east of the political frontier still remained in their ancient homes, as in the governments of Tver and Novgorod, in spite of the pressure of Russian immigrants from the south and east. Here they have lived a secluded life, and have to some extent retained their national characteristics and their Finnish speech. The rest amalgamated with the Rus- sian immigrants , or were pressed, back upon their kindred to the north and west of the river Svir, Lake Onega and the White Sea. Cut off from, and almost for- gotten by the world, they lived their simple life on this northern cowitryside, main- taining themselves by primitive tillage, burn-beating, and by fishing and hun- ting. They made small progress in civilisation. The Russian church and govermnent did nothing to raise them, and owing to the great difference of languages, Rus- sian literature was inaccessible to them. With Finland, too, they had but little communication. The course of history, the difftrouc of religion — evan 990<)04 \I gelical Lutheran in Finland and Greek Catholic in Russia — and of exter- nal conditions all combined to divide the kindred peoples. But the Carelians pre- served from oblivion our great Finnish national epic, the Kalevala, and after the Finnish national aivakcning which the appearance of this epic helped to pro- duce, our people began to take rather more interest in East Carelia. Students of language and of natural science began to study and learned to know the people and the country. They found there our own Finnish country and our own people, simple and undeveloped, but pure-minded and vigorous. The Carelians, too, began to feel the tie of kinship, and the desire for culture, for enlightenment and better conditions awoke in them. Intercourse across the frontier became more intimate and frequent. But then, too, Russian nationalism came to poiver. The work of dena- tionalisation in East Carelia began with the establishment of Russian elementary schools, the persecution of every one who worked to raise the popular level of education, and so on, just as we experienced it in the regions on our Russian frontier, and in political matters all over Fin- land. All Finnish educational work in East Carelia was forbidden, Finns were even most rigorously prevented from visiting the country. But all this terrorist rule only strengthened the more clear-sighted Carelians in their conviction that union with Finland was the only salvation for them and for their country. And the most recent events have made this clearer than ever. In January igi8 a few Finnish scientists and philologists who were acquainted with and interested in East Carelia met to consult as to what could be done to im- prove the desperate condition of the kindred people across our frontier. Now that Finland was free, and that the world war offered the best prospects of success to transformations that had formerly appeared impossible, it see?ned that the time had come for uniting into one strong ivhole all the FinnisJi land and Finnish people betiveen the arms of the Baltic, the White Sea and the Arctic Ocean. To East Carelia this would mean salvation from national ruin and economic exploita- tion; to free Finland it would bring a substantial addition of territory and popula- tion-; and for the whole land thus united it would open a perspective of progres- sive development and a bright and beautiful future. Those leho thus took counsel together thought that the best help they could ren- der in the Carelian problem would be to join with other experts who had visited the Carelian territory in producing an unbiassed description of this compara- tively unknown land, its natural aspects, its people, and its economic, social and political conditions. It was, of course, realised that there would he considerable difficulties in carrying out such a plan, but we determined to set to work. The lear ivhich shortly after-wards broke out in Finland, and a number of other impe- VII diments somewhat delayed the completion oi our task, although the various writers bestowed upon it the most self-sacrificing pains. Few meetings ivere held, but circum- stances so ordained that the undersigned became the connecting link of our undertak- ing, and that he. Dr. J. G. Grand, Lecturer in Geography, and Mr. 0. Lonnroth, Chief of the Statistical Department of the Board of Forests, formed a kind of edi- torial committee. It is therefore my pleasant duty to thank warmly all the writers, and especially these tito, for the knowledge and indefatigable zeal xvliich they brought to the work. Dr. Grand has taken charge of the section on Kola Lapmark, has prepared valuable maps of this extensive territory from the observations made and placed at his disposal by various scientific expeditions and explorers, and has also collected frmn the voluminous Russian literature on the subject much information about different East Carelian conditions ivhich is alike impor- tant and difficult to obtain. Mr. Lonnroth has not only made important contri- butions to the specialist descriptions in the text, but has also expended the utmost pains and consulted every available source in order to prepare a large map of East Carelia and Kola Lapmark. This map is published separately, and forms the basis both of the geographical and statistical maps in the book, and of the plani- metric measurements referred to in the text. Among the many people who have assis- ted the work by furnishing valuable information and notes, special mention must be made of Mr. W. Olin, and Dr. Itkonen. These have provided exceedingly care- ful data of the population and its nationality in every village of north-western Kola Lapmark and the whole Murman Coast. The Finnish edition of the present w'ork ivas published in November igi8, and in the beginning of last year a Swedish edition, ivhich is the same as the Finnish with the addition of a chapter on »The Claim of Finland to a Share in the Arctic Coast». The present English edition is prepared from the Swedish one, with a few abbreviations, and has been translated from the Swedish by Mrs. Mary Stenbdck. Since the publication of the Finnish and Su'edish editions the political situation has somewhat changed. The Peace of Dorpat, for example, con- cluded betw'een Finland and Russia in October ig20, allotted the Petchenga territory to Finland. The suggestions about t/ie union of East Carelia with Finland, made in the .last chapter, »Final Survey of Economic, Religious and Political Life» can no longer, therefore, be carried out as easily as they might perhaps have been in igi8, when those words were written, and moreover, Finland is now considerably less able to give that country economic and moral assistance or to organise the country for the benefit of the inhabitants, owing the economic difficulties into ivhich Finland itself has fallen since that date. VIII Nevertheless, we retain that chapter as it was written, almost unchanged, for from the point of view of the Carelians there has been no change for the better. On the contrary, their position is still more unhappy than it was before, exposed as they are to the oppression and terror of the Bolsheviks, and it is perhaps even clearer than it was before the revolution that the only salvation for their country is union ivith, or social and economic dependence on Finland. It is scarcely necessary to add that all the chapters describe conditions as they were before the revolution of igiy. . Theodor Homen. Helsingfors, June, ig2i. CONTENTS PART I. KOLA LAPMARK. Page Introduction. Situation, Frontiers, Area, and Administrative and Eccle- siastical Divisions /. G, Grand. \^ I. Physical Features, Flora and Fauna. 1. Configuration and Altitudes Th. Brenner. 3 2. The Coast" » 5 3. The Rock Foundation and the Soil » 7 • 4. The Inland Watercourses » 8 5. The Sea /. G. Granii. 1 1 6. Light and Climate » 13 7. Vegetation IV. Brenner. 1 7 8. The Animal Kingdom J.G.Grand. 20 II. The Population and Settlements. 1 . The Lapps T. Itkonen. 22 2. The Finns » 24 3. The Russians » 27 4. Other Nationalities » 29 5. Statistics of Population /. G. Grano. 31 HI, Means of Communication T. Itkonen and /. G. Grand. 33 IV. Economic Life. Husbandry /. G. Grand. 35 F'ishing » 36 Sealing and Whaling i> 40 Hunting » 42 Forestry » 43 Industry and Mining » 43 Subsidiary Occupations 44 Trade » 46 X V. Social Conditions. f Page 1 . Housing /'. Ilkonen. 47 2. Dress -> 49 3. Food > 50 4. Conditions of Healtli » 50 5. Religion and Education /. G. c//y/w' and /'. Itkonen. 51 VI. The Claim of Finland to a Share in the Arctic Coast Chinnar Sarva. 52 PART II. EAST CARELIA. Introduction. Situation, Boundaries, Area, Administration, Judicial and Ecclesiastical Divisions .... y." > 17. Going out to Fish, from the Village of Ponoi. » 18. Log Huts of the Kamenski Lapps, on the Ponoi River » /. A. After Palme n. » 8 » 15 T fiord Brenner. 15 y. A. Palmcn. 15 » 15 » 15 15 » 15 » 24 » 24 » 24 IV. Ramsay. 24 J. A. Palmcn. 32 >> 32 48 EAST CARELIA. 19. Kivakka Rapids in the Oulanka River, and Ki- vakkatunturi Fell, » /-A'. Inha. 20. Village of Venehjarvi, Vuokkinienii Photo /. K. Inha. 21. Natural Meadow on Lake Seesjarvi, » P. Eskola. 22. Hilly Landscape at the Village of Veskelys, Saamajarvi, » » 48 48 72 72 XII After page 23. Field of Sand and the Great Posting Road, near the Market Town of Suina, Photo. /. Sourander. 72 24. Oulanka River » J. E. Rosberg. 72 25. Usmankoski Rapid.s, in the Kein River •> I. K. Inha. 72 26. \'illage of Listepohja, on Lake Seesjarvi, » P. Eskola. 72 27. Vojatsunkoski Rapids in the Uikujoki (River Vyg) » » 80 28. Porokoski Rapids (Left Arm) in the Sununjoki. .> » 80 29. Mountain of Greenstone beside Lake Paljarvi, » » 80 30. Pit for Working Copper Ore at the Village of Pyhanienii, -> P. Eskola. 80 31. Solovets Monastery » A. O. Kihlman. 136 32. »Hand Game* (Kasikisa). Kem Carelia » /. K. Inha. 136 33. Women Neighbours Weeping for a Mother who is Left Alone, Kem Carelia >> * 136 34. Lari Homestead at Luvajarvi » Yrjd Blomstedt. 136 35. Burial Ground at Luvajarvi, ]. K. Inha. 136 36. Woman in Old Fashioned Dress, Oulanka > U. T. S/relius. 136 37. Man in Old Fashioned Hunting Dress, Miinoa. Drawing by F. /.Vow5/^t//. 136 38. Pearl Fi.sher, Keru Carelia Photo. I. K. Inha. 136 39. Boy from Kivijarvi, » ,> 144 40. Peasantry from the Village of Koikari » P. Eskola. 144 41. Herdsboy with Horn of Birch Bark, Province of Olonets ., A. 0. Vaisdnen. 141 42. Kantele Plaj-er, Kem Carelia ■> » 144 43. Girl Driving a Harrow of Brushwood, Village of Jyrkanmaki, » P. Eskola. 168 44. Burn-beaten Field, with Crop of Oats. Tulema- jarvi ,) ,> 16S 45. Cows of East Carelian Breed. Province of Olonets Photo A. I/agman. 168 46. Agricultural Expert on an Official Journey, Man- tyselka, .> „ 168 47. Bridge in Kem Carelia » ,> 175 48. Road in Kem Carelia » /.A'. Inha. 176 49. Uhutjoki River. Parts of the Village of Uhtu i » 184 50. Village of Koikari on the Sununjoki ". » P. Eskola. 184 51. Old Homestead ,> ,> 134 52. Natural Meadow., and a Barn, Paadene, -> » 184 53. Town of Petrosavodsk » A. O. Kihlman. 232 54. Town of Povenets .> IF. Ramsay. 232 55. Village of Njuhtcha, on the Njuhtchi » /. Sourand^-r. 248 56. Kieretti Church Village, at the Mouth of the Kieretti River » /.A'. Inha. 248 57. Town of Kem » ,> 248 58. High Road in the Province of Povenets » C. Mnn.k. 248 59. Women Mending a High Road, Kenljiirvi, -> P. Eskola. 248 XIII After page 60. Zemstvo Posting Inn att Kossalmi Photo. P. Eskola, 248 61. Bringing Grain from Finland by Boat » /.A'. 2n/ia. 248 LIST OF MAPS. Geographical and Political. East Carelia and Kola Lapniark Prepared by Onni Lonnroth. End of book The Finnish, Norwegian and Russian Fron- After page tier Territorj' » » » 56 Geological. Geological Map of East Carelia and Kola Lapmark Prepared by P. Eskola. 80 Climatological. I. Annual Isotherms, 1886-1905 » » O. V. Johansso?i. 88 II. January Isotherms » ' » » » 88 III. July Isotherms » » » » 88 Botanico-geographical. The Botanico-geographical Provinces of Fin- land, East Carelia and Kola Lapmark >> » Societas pro fauna 96 et flora fennica. Distribution in East Carelia and Kola Lap- mark of Plants which Occur in Fertile, Grove-like Situations » » K. Linkola. 153 Distribution over the Boglands of the Above Territory of Plants which Demand Fer- tile Soil * » » 153 Quality of the Soil in the Above Territory. » . > » 153 Statistical. I. Area and Kinds of Land Owned by the Peasant Communities in Olonets Carelia » » Onm Lonnroth. 1 60 II. Amount of the Harvest in Each Com- mune of Olonets Carelia in 1902 and of Kem Carelia in 1904 » » » 168 III. Number of Cattle in the Communes of Olonets Carelia in 1902 and of Kem Carelia in 1904 » » « 176 Density of Population in East Carelia and Kola Lapmark in the years 1907-10, shown on the geographical map » » » end of book PART I KOLA LAPMARK J. G. Grand, I. Itkonen, Th. Brenner, W. Brenner, and G. Sarva. I. INTRODUCTION. Situation, Frontiers, Area, and Administrative and Ecclciiiastical Divii^iou?. Kola Lapmark i) embraces the whole Kola Peninsula, together with the area between the base of that peninsula and the Norwegian and Finnish fron- tiers. Its most northerly point is the north-western extremity of the Rybatchi (»Fishep>) Peninsula, which lies in 69^ 58' north latitude, or a little south of the northernmost corner of Finland. Its most southerly capes, on the gently curving south coast of the Kola Peninsula, extend south of the Polar Circle to 66° 3' north latitude. The easternmost portion of Kola is the Triostrova Islands, just north of the mouth of the river Ponoi, wliich lie 41^ 28' east of Greenwich, 16" 31 ' east of Helsingfprs, and thus a little to the east of the town of Archangel. Its most w^esterly point is at Tok^'oradsh on the Finnish fron- tier, a little to the north of the river Luttojoki '^), and lies 28'^ 26' east of Greenwich, 3° 29' east of Helsingfors. Thus Kola Lapmark stretches over nearh- four degrees of lattitude, and about thirteen degrees of longtitude. It belongs to the Arctic Zone, except for the most southerly part of the coast of the Kola Peninsula, which is in the Temperate Zone. The greatest length of this territory (WNW— ESE) is abot^t 570 kilometres (about 358 English miles) and its breadth about 280 kilometres (175 miles). This land is surrounded by sea on the north, east and south. On the north its shores are washed by the Arctic Ocean, to the south stretches the White Sea. This is connected with the Arctic Ocean by a sound called »Gorlo» (throat) on the east coast of the Kola Peninsula. The territory washed by the Arctic Ocean, stretching from the Norwegian frontier to Cape Sviatoinos in the east, is called the Miirman Coast. The next stretch of coast, from the said cape to ^) Up to the year 1920 the whole area here described belonged to Russia. By the Peace of Dorpat the westernmost portion was ceded to Finland (see p. 59). 2) The reader will find it convenient to remember the meaning of the nio.st frequent terminations of place names; — joki ^= river, tunturi =: fell, jarvi (jaur) = lake, vaara = mountain, selka = ridge, koski = rapids, lahti = gulf, saari = island, niemi = cape, (Trans.) 1 2 J' G. Grand, Introduction. the mouth of the river Varzuga, is the Ter Coast, and finally, the south- western strip of shore is called the Kandalaks Coast. The frontier against Norway was fixed in Petrograd on May 14th, 1826, when the so-called »Faelles District* (= common district) was divided between Russia and Norway. It begins at Muodkevarre (called »Mudkevara» in the treat}'), runs south-eastwards to Kalshomiehta (Gelsomio) on the river Patsjoki, and then follows that river and the lakes into which it expands, to a point near its mouth where the Greek Catholic church of Boris Gleb stands en the leJ t bank of the river. The place where that church was built, »and a verst around» belongs to Russia. One verst north of the church, the frontier inclines south-eastwards across the valley of the Patsjoki to the lake where the river Lax rises, then it runs eastwards to the spot where the Jacob's river (Vuo- remanjoki) takes its origin from three sources, and finally runs northwards along that river to the Arctic coast. The frontier against Finland was fixed at the Peace of Stolbova on February 27th, 1617. It runs south- and southeast- wards from Muo dkevarre to the neighbourhood of Kaitatunturi, keeping generally to the east of the watershed between the Gulf of Bothnia and the Arctic Ocean. Thus the great tributaries of the river Tuloma, the rivers Lutto- joki and Nuortijoki, rise on Finnish territory. The boundary between the provinces of Kem and Alexandrovsk is generally regarded as the southern frontier of the territory, — probably for practical reasons — and this runs first in an easterly direction with a curve towards the south, to the region south of Lake Imandra, and then goes across the river Kolvitsajoki to the Kanadalaks Coast. In this way, however, a territory which unquestionably ought to he- long to Kola falls outside its boundary. A more natural frontier would be formed by a line drawn from the inner end of the Kandalaks Gulf along the valley of the mouth of the river Kantajoki and along the highest watershed of the Kaitatunturi fells to Vaatsimenoiva on the Finnish frontier. According to Strelbitski's calculation, made in the year 1882, the area of Kola Lapmark up to the boundary of the province of Kem on the south is 155,203 '7 square kilometres (60,626 square English miles), but according to a calculation made for the present work it is only about 142,500 square kilo- metres (55,664 square miles), or if the frontier is drawn along a line from Kan- dalaks to Vaatsimenoiva, about 154,500 sq. km. (60,352 sq. miles), — or rather more than a third of the area of Finland. The Kola Peninsula proper, if its boundary be drawn from Kandalaks on the south, along the river Niva, Lake Imandra and the river Kola to the Kola Fjord, takes up about 98,500 sq. km. (27,131 sq. miles), while the remaining 46,000 sq. km. (17,969 sq. miles) is formed by the western mainland, wliich thus roughly corresponds in size to FENNIA 42 No. 3. 3 the province of Kuopio in Finland. According to Trofimenko's calculation. made in 1872, 21 ^j^ of Kola lyapmark consists of forest, 9 •'/q of lakes and rivers, and no less than 64 o/^ of bog or tundras. From the point of view of administration, the whole of Kola Lapmark belongs to the government of Archangel, and, apart from the south-western corner which belongs to the province of Keni, it forms a single province or ujezd, called Alexandrovsk. It is in area the largest province of European Russia except Petchora. Its capital, Alexandrovsk, lies on the western shore of the Kola Fjord. Like all provinces in Russia, it is divided for local govern- ment purposes into communes or volosts, and these volosts are divided into village communities or obtchestvos. There are six volosts. The settlements on the Murman coast form the Volost of Murman Settlements, (Murmanskoi kolonistskaia volost); the greater part of the interior, with its Lapp villages or pogosts, belongs to the Kola Lapp Volost (Kolsko loparskaia volost); the area of the river Ponoi and the north-western corner of Kola including Sviatoinos forms the Ponoi Volost (Ponoiskaia volost); while the southern part of the peninsula is divided between the volosts of Umba (Umbskaia volost), Kuzomen Kuzomenskaia volost) and Tetrina (Tetrinskaia Volost). The ecclesiastical divisions only partially correspond to the political ones. The whole of Kola Lapmark except the very ancient monastery of Petchenga or Petsamo, which is under the Moscow synodal administration, belongs to the diocese of Archangel, and is divided into two deaneries or blagotchinies. The first deanery, to which belong the Volost of the Murman Settlements and the Kola Lapp Volost, is divided into nine parishes, (Gavrilovsk, Kildin, Kitovsk, Lovosersk, Notosersk, Pazretsk, Petchenga, Teriberka and Rynda), while the second deanery embraces the volosts of Panoi, Umba, Kuzomen, and Tetrina, and is divided into seven parishes (Varzuga, Kasharantsy, Kuzomen, Ponoi, Tetrina, Umba and Tchapoma). There are also three town parishes. Kola, Alexandrovsk and Murmansk. The Finns have a Lutheran pastor of their own in Alexandrovsk. J. G. Grano. Physical Features, Flora and Fauna. i. Configuration and Altitudes. From the point of view of physical features Kola Lapmark is intimately connected with Finland and Scandinavia. All these territories, together with East Carelia, form, in respect to their natural conditions, a single whole, which is called Fenno-Scandia. 4 ' Th. Brenner, Configuration and Altitudes. The area to the west of Lake Imandra and for some leagues to the east of it, forms a direct continuation of the Finnish Lapmark, and has a broken land- scape of tundras and fells, alternating with bogs. The heights are, however, greater than in Finland, and the continuous mountain systems coVer wider stretches of land than in Finnish Lapmark. A number of groups of mountains may be mentioned as forming a continuation eastwards of the Saariselkii in Finland; — Sarvestundar, Vunastundar, Rastimtundar, all of wliich lie on the southern side of the Luttojoki. To the south-east of the Nuortijoki we find a large mountain system which includes the heights of Siulutaldi and \'uojim, which rise to 1 ,000 metres and more above the sea, while further to the south- east the Petchajoki has its sources in the Tuodasch tundra. Among the noteworthy heights in the southern districts may be mentioned Katinkulta- tunturi, 560 meters high, and Riekkolatvatunturi, 687 meters, west of Ba- binskaia Imandra. Still further to the south, between the Kandalaks Gulf and the Finnish frontier, are the Kaitatunturi, fells with heights of o\er 500 metres. The greatest heights, and those most worthy of notice areTchuin, Montche and Voltchia or Xamdes on the west of Imandra, and on the east of that lake Umptek or Hibina, a very extensive mountain group, which stretches east- wards to the Umpjaur lake. To the east of Lake Umpjaur again, there rise the mighty heights of Lujaur-Urt (Fig. 1). All these last-named attain a height of about 1,000 metres above the sea, and Umptek as much as 1,200 metres. The Umptek fells, the largest group, cover an area of 1,145 square kilometres, and Lujaur-Urt 485 square kilometres. The scenery of these mountain areas is wild and desolate. The sides of the vallej's are formed by steep precipices, while their bottoms are generally level. ]\lany of them are exceedingly inaccess- ible, and large mountain areas have a completely alpine character. South and south-east of these fells there is a tract with more varied scen- ery, also including several very considerable heights, which, however, gradually merge into the almost plainlike surface of the eastern portion of the Kola peninsula (Figs. 2 and 3). North of the fells, again, several tundras can be noted. Here are Maaselg and \'^iruaiv (600 metres) and further north again, to the east of the town of Kola, Vilkisvum, (about 400 metres). On the northern part of the Kola Peninsula also, the tundras get lower and less prominent, as one goes eastwards. Some names may here be mentioned; — Pulmasuaiv and Paitspahk on the eastern side of theVoronie river; Poarresuaiv and \'ytsepahk in the middle of the Kola Peninsula, north of the river Ponoi, which two moun- tains are connected with an extensive mountain system of no great height; Schuur-Urt and Saiht-L^rt. The greater part of the eastern area is occupied by a desolate plateau rising some 100—150 metres above the sea. Above this FENNIA 42 No. 3. 5 rise the tundras, whose limits are in many places clearly marked, while in other places the level plateau gradually merges into higher liills and moun- tains. There is thus a clearly marked difference of configuration between the eastern and western portions of the Kola territorj-. Wide plains with scat- tered tundras are characteristic of the eastern part, while the weste rn regions are much broken, with in places fairly considerable heights. The fells here cover \\dder expanses, and are surrounded b}' smaller hills and mountains. The whole territor}^ is pervaded by great quantities of swampy land, which sometimes lies between the fells, and sometimes upon them, often at a consider- able height. 2. The Coasts. The character of the coasts and shores depends upon the general forma- tion and topographical conditions of the country. The whole stretch of coast is marked by its exposed position and the absence of any archipelago worth mentioning. It is calculated that only 431 '2 square kilometres of the whole area is occupied bj^ islands, and tliis includes the large island of Kildin. The Mtirman Coast can convenienth' be divided into an eastern and a western section, cliiefly according to the character of its shores. The deep Kola Fjord would form the dividing line. West Murman resembles on the whole the coasts of vSouth Varanger. We find here deep fjords,. which afford good anchorage, surrounded by lofty cliffs, and in places desolate precipices. Here is the great Rybatchi Peninsula (1400 sq. km). Its southern portion is called Sredni, and is divided from the northern part by the Gulf of Ozerko, (a good harbour), on the east, and the Bumas Fjord on the west. The Rybatchi Pem'nsula is separated from the mainland on the east by a large gulf called Muotkavuono. The shores of the Rybatchi Peninsula are completely exposed and very varied, consisting in places of high mountains, while elsewhere the land is low and the water shallow. To the west of it comes the deep Peisen or Petchenga Fjord, while to the east lie the Titovka, I^itsa, Aara and Uura Fjords. The Kola Fjord, which is the deepest, 60 kilometres long, and ciurved westwards in an elbow, affords an exceptionally good harbour. In the mouth of the Kola Fjord there are many smaller fjords, and several islands, of which Toros is the largest. Here too lies the port of Jekaterinskaia-gavan (called Alexandrovsk after the 3' ear 1889), shut in between lofty cliffs. The coast to the east. Eastern Mtirman, gets lower, and the deep fjords disap- pear. About 20 kilometres east of Kola Fjord lies the island of Kildin, wliich 6 Th. Brenner, The Coasts. is separated from the mainland by a navigable sound. The rivers debouch in gulfs, of which the largest is at the mouth of the Varsin, while another of considerable size lies just west of Sviatoinos. Many of these gulfs are full of shallows, and on each side of them the coast is exposed and barren, with its desolate, rocky shores. There are a few islands, of which may be named the Sem-ostrovo Archipelago (the Seven Islands), outside the Harlovka river, Nokujev, in the gulf at the mouth of the Varsin, and Jokonskie, west of Svia- toinos. Sviatoinos itself is a pointed cape, about 18 kilometres long, which juts straight out into the sea towards the north-north-west. East thereof begins the Ter Coast, the northern portion of which resembles in the main the eastern part of the Murman Coast. There are here similar rocky shores with gulfs here and there, such as I^umbovskai, which has a fairly large island at its entrance. On the eastern coast of the Kola Peninsula the river Ponoi debouches hi a fjord which is surrounded by high shores. Somewhat to the north of this we see three islands, Triostrova, which lie outside the easternmost cape of the Kola Peninsula, Orlov. South-westwards from the Ponoi, the shores take on a different character. They get still lower, and long stretches show no rocky land at all, only sand and shingle, which can even extend for a couple of kilometres inland before meeting the higher ground. In other places the narrow strip of shore is bounded, very close to the actual beach, by steep precipices some tens of metres high. Generally speaking the shores are shelving, and not infrequently sand banks occur several kilometres from the water's edge. There, are no gulfs of any size, and the only island worth noting is Sosnovets. The coast is therefore entirely exposed to the storms of the White Sea, but the waves which roll in upon the Ter Coast often break against sand banks and shallows far from the shore. The same kind of coast extends far into the Gulf of Kandalaks. No change occurs until the Turja (Ter) Peninsula is reached. Then the shores again become higher and rocky. The westernmost point of Ter is a steep precipice about 100 metres high. Towards the north-west islands become more num- erous, and the coast is deeply cleft, but still not especially high. Among the gulfs Umba and Porja-guba may be mentioned. Outside the latter there are many rocky islands. The further one penetrates into the Gulf of Kandalaks, the higher and steeper its shores become, and near the village of Kandalaks and in the Kolvitsa Gulf the cliffs attain a height of nearly 200 metres. There is a low, narrow strip of shore along the water's edge, and from this the cliffs rise steeply. Islands are scattered here and there, and give the scenery an attractive appearance. The above shows that in the high-lying parts of Kola Lapmark the coasts FENNIA 42 No. 3. 7 are rocky, with long fjords and sheltered harbours, while the shores of the level, almost plain-like eastern portion are less deeply cleft, and little accessible to vessels. 3. The Rock Foundation and Soil. The rocks are in the main of the same kinds as in Finland and the greater part of Fennoscandia. The chief are gneis and metamorphic schists, inter- terspersed wdth granite, both red and grey. Sometimes the granite forms considerable masses, becomes coarse grained, and sometimes porphyritic. Darker basic rocks are also widely spread over the land. In places we see black veins of diabase sharply intersecting slate and gneis, as on the Murmar Coast, while in other places there are large basic blocks, as in the Montche and Voltchia tundras, and gabbroid rocks on the river Varxuga. Metamorphosed basic rocks are found in a wedge-shaped area, running west- north-west from the tracts between Kandalaks and Porja-guba towards Hirv^asjiirvi and the Fin- nish frontier. They are rich in garnets, and often have a kind of eyestructure which is very characteristic. The great fells of Umptek and lyUJaur-Urt occupy a distinct position in this area. They consist of a comparatively rare rock, nepheline-syenite, with a number of variations, and form the largest known continuous blocks of that rock. This rock decomposes with peculiar ease, so that these mountains are in most places covered with loose stones and boulders. Closely connected with this mass is an iolite rock on the Ter Peninsula, east of the village of Umba. Rocks of more recent formation and a different character from the above occur on the Rybatchi Peninsula and the island of Kildin, and also at places on the Ter Coast, as at Ponoi, Tchapoma and Varzuga. The)^ chiefly consist of slates and sandstones, red and grey. So far as is at present known. Kola Lapmark is not rich in ores or useful minerals. Veins of galena have been discovered, thinly scattered over differ- ent portions of the territory. These are fairly common round Umba on the northern coast of the gulf of Kandalaks. Finnish researchers who have visited the country hold that they are too thin and poor to have any practical value. More promising veins of lead have been discovered in north-west Kola and on the Murman Coast at Dolgaia-guba (Falke Fjord) and Bazarnaia. These are veins of calcite quartz, often rich in ore, and sometimes as much as 25 centimetres broad. These ores sometimes contain silver, and sometimes also zinc blende. As stated in the chapter on industry, a beginning has already been made in the working of these finds. These deposits of lead ore are therefore 8 Th. Brenner, The Inland Watercourses. to some extent deserving of attention, and especially of thorough investiga- tion. Finns have' taken part in certain mining undertakings. The soils show here, as also in Finland, the effects of the land-ice. A mighty layer of moraine gravel covers the greater part of the territory. Here are ridges and moraine hills, the latter often exceedingly stony. Owing to the fission caused b}^ the intense cold, many of the liigher mountains are absolutely »seas of boulders» and look at a distance like enormous piles of gravel. (Fig. 4). Peat formations cover large areas, and the layers of i)eat are of considerable rich- ness. It is well known that in northern places the turf in swamps and bogs can swell up into knolls and liillocks which often reach a height of 2 or 3 metres above the level surface of the bog (Fig. 5) The soil along the rivers and watercourses consists partly of silt, and in many places on the Ter Coast and in- land there are old river strata of silt and sand. In many places on the coast, as for example at Kuzomen, there are extensive sand dunes. 4. The Inland Watercourses. According to Strelbitski, inland lakes occupy 7,035-5 sq. km. or 1/22 part of the whole area of Kola Lapmark. The three largest lakes lie in the districts between the Gulf of Kandalaks and the Kola Fjord. Here there is the great lake of Jmandra, with a surface of about 1,100 sq. km., enclosed by liigh moun- tains on both sides, with countless capes and inlets. This lake is divided into two parts »great-Imandra», the northern half, which lies north and south, and '>Babinskaia-Imandra», which stretches to the west from the southern end of the northern half. A line drawn along the lake from its western corner to the northern end would be about 120 kilometres long. The average breadth of the lake is 15 — 20 km. Low islands are scattered about it here and there. Imandra receives its water from the melting snow upon the fells, and from the lakes Pirijarvi and Salmijarvi to the west. The last-named receives the waters of the Juqnnijoki river, which rises in the frontier tracts which border on the Finnish parish of Kuolajarvi. In the north, Imandra receives the waters of a river which comes from Permjaur, and in the north-east the river Pietsjok, wliich rises in several small lakes. Imandra runs out into the Gulf of Kanda- laks, through the Niva, a very swift river which contains many rapids, but nevertheless broadens out in several places. This river falls 128 metres in its length of 30 kilometres. Just as Imandra lies enclosed between the fells of IVIontche and V^oltchia on the west and Umptek on the east, so too Umpjaur lies between Umptek and Lujaur-urt. This lake is about half the size of Imandra, and has the same Fig. 1. Lake Seitjaur and the Fells of Lujaur-Urt. PholO ,7. /?. Pa/men. Fig. 2. Fell Landscape from Central Kola. View towards the north from Urm-oaivi Fell. P.ioto 7. W. Palmen, Fig. 3. East Kola Plateau and the Ponoi River. Photo J. A. Palnien. Fig. 4. Rapids in the Mouth of the Kola River, and the Moraine Ridge of Salovareka. Photo J. A. Palmen. FRNNIA 42 No. 3. 9 character of an alpine lake. The water is collected from the surrounding fells alone, and runs out in the Uniba river, through a long, narrow lake called Kan-ozero. This river has its mouth in the Gulf of Umba, beside a village of the same name. Here also there are many rapids, some of which, situated about 8—12 kilometres from the mouth, are worthy of note. The third great lake is Lujaur, situated to the east of Lujaur-urt. Like Umpjaur, this lake forms a basin into which many mountain streams collect. It runs out to the north, in the great river Voronie, which after receiving a number of tributaries, such as Kurkjok, Njukjok, Uimjok, Tchudisjok, Lanjjok and lyiekjok, and a still larger number of unnamed streams, flows out into the Arctic Ocean at Gavri- lovo as a mighty river. The five largest rivers of the Kola Peninsula have their sources in the same area as contains its greatest lakes. The Umba and Voronie already mentioned rise here, as well as the Joukjok, Ponoi and Varzuga. Their sources all lie in the neighbourhood of Umpjaur and Lujaur, within a space of scarcely 50 square kilometres. The Joukjok flows out into the Arctic Ocean immediately to the west of Cape Sviatoinos. It has its sources in the neighbourhood of Lujaur, around the lake of Tchinglasmana. It flows thence eastwards, through a number of smaller lakes, between the heights of Saiht-urt and Tcharr, from which it receives a number of large tributaries. The river Ponoi, the longest on the Kola Peninsula, has its sources about 20 kilometres east of Lujaur, from whence it runs, with many loops and through a number of lakes, inclu- ding Vuljaur, east-south-east to the eastern end of the Kola Peninsula. Dur- ing its course it receives a number of little known tributaries on both the right and the left banks. The basin of the Ponoi is not broad, as a number of other large rivers which fall into the Arctic Ocean and the Wloite Sea have their sources far up in the interior of the country. The fifth great river within this territory is the Varzuga. One of its largest sources is the Pana, which rises about 20 km. south of Lujaur. The sources of the Varzuga are spread over an exceptionally wide area. Its lowest reach runs south-eastwards for about 100 km. and receives a number of tributaries, including one from the great lake of Serg. The northern end of this reach joins on to the Upper Varzuga, which runs in a great, pointed curve to the south-east from several smaller lakes situated about 20 km. away from the river Ponoi, and also receives a large number of tributaries, including the Pana and the Indela. In addition to these five great rivers, there are several smaller ones, of which the following deserve mention. Towards the Murman Coast there flow the Teriberka, from the lakes of Rypjaur and Teriberkaj aur, the Rinda, the Kaarlovjok from Lejjaur and Njeemjaur which are situated near the sources 10 Th. Brenner, The Inland Watercourses. of the Joukjok, the I.itsa, and the Varsina from the lakes of Nisanjaur and Jenjaur. On the south-east Ter Coast the chief are the Akjok from Akjaur, the Pjalitsa, the Tchapoma, the Strelna and the Tchavanga, the last of which rises in the considerable lakes of Verhneie, Sredneie and Nischneie Andomo- zero. Further to the west, in the Gulf of Kandalaks, only smaller rivers have their mouths. The only one of any importance is the river that flows from the lake of Kolvitsa. A characteristic common to most of the rivers here mentioned, is that in the interior of the Kola Peninsula they flow calmly, while nearer to the coast they are rich in rapids. Many of these rivers have not, in their upper reaches, carved out any marked river bed, and only fall into deep water-worn valleys, with precipitous sides, some ten or twenty kilometres from the coast. The rivers Ponoi (Fig. 3) and Thapoma (Fig. 6) form typical examples. Most of the great bogs and numerous lakes west and north of Imandra have their outlet in the Kola Fjord. The great lake of Guollejaur, north of Imandra, is only separated from the Imandra waters b}' a watershed half a kilometre wide, and flows out through the lakes of Puljaur and Murtjaur by the swift Kola river, which has cut its way deep into the moraine gravel. (Figs. 4 and 7). The Kola Fjord also receives the river Tuloma from the west, but that name is only applied to the lower reaches of the river, below the long and narrow lake of Nuortjaur. There are many might}' rapids in these reaches, and the confluences of large tributaries, among which the Pietsjok (Petajajoki) on the south, is the largest. The lake of Nuortjaur is about 90 km. long and scarcely one kilometre wide. Its northern half extends in an easterh' direction, while the southern portion lies almost north and south. At the bend the river Luttojoki runs in, coming from the west, bej'ond the Finnish frontier, and gathering its waters from a countless number of lakes and streams on both sides of its sinuous course. The lake Nuortjaur also receives rivers from far to the south. The river Hirvasjoki (Sorvisjoki) comes from the lake Hirvas- jarvi and joins the Nuortjok, which comes from the south-west, beyond the Finnish frontier, and has already received the waters of a large river, the Jaurjok, which flows from the west. Thus the Nuortjok is already large and swift when it falls into the lake of Nuortjaur, which, after receiving also the Luttojoki, flows out into the Kola Fjord. Four important rivers have their mouths in the Arctic Ocean on the western Murman Coast; these are the Pei- sen, or Petchenga, west of the Rybatchi Peiiinsula, the Titovka, the Litsa and the Uura, which debouch in the fjords with the same names. All the rivers in Kola Lapmark have very irregular courses. They swell out into a series of lakes, so that a boat journey along these beautiful water- FENNIA 42 No. 3. 11 courses does not in the least give the feeling of travelling down a river. Then all at once the lake will grow narrow, and suddenly a seething rapid presents itself. When this is successfully passed, there may be calm water to navigate. Many of the large lakes marked upon the map are only expanded reaches of the rivers. Th. Brenner. 5. The Sea. The Northern Arctic Ocean is comparatively shallow on the Murman Coast. Further out, however, the depth increases so rapidly that three or four kilo- metres from the coast navigation is quite without danger; There are no shal- lows, and no islands except the Hen Islands or Haneija on the southern side of the Rybatchi Peninsula, and Kildin. Further from the coast the sea bottom has a general tendenc}- to rise from west to east. Examination of the chart in the latitude of \^ardo, for example, show^s that the greatest depth, about 450 metres, occurs near that town; on the meridian of Kildii?i the depth is 250 metres, in the longtitude of Sviatoinos at most 180 metres, outside Cape Kanin 90 metres, and in some places only 65 metres. The contours of the sea bottom vary more in the Varanger Fjord than off eastern Murman, where the depth is practically the same over an extensive area. Soundings between the Kola Fjord and Sviatoinos show that at first the bottom sinks so steeply that the curve of 130—150 metres depth runs only 3 — 7 kilometres from the coast. Further out, the depth increases more gentl}-, so that 60 km. from the coast it is about 190—170 metres opposite the Kola Fjord, and only 150 m. in the longtitude of East Litsa. Above this comparatively level submarine plain rise two quite low, gently sloping ridges or »korga» (thresholds), which in the main follow the line of the shore. The inner one begins in the west near Teri- berka, approaches the coast — to about 10 km. therefrom — off R3'nda, and then turns eastwards towards Cape Kanin. As far as is known the outer one lies about 20 km. further out. The fish follow in their wanderings the even furrows formed by the shore and these ridges, so that the distance from the coast to the fishing grounds is shortest at Rynda. The »throat» of the White Sea is comparatively shallow. At its mouth, the depth is almost everywhere less than 50 metres. Ftuther south, the deepest channel only exceeds 100 metres at one point, while the cur^^e of 50 metres depth runs at least 10 km. from the coast. The Gulf of Kandalaks isconsider- abl}' deeper. Soundings of over 300 metres have been taken at its mouth. 12 y. G. Grand, The Sea. and off the Ter Peninsula the curve of 200 metres depth runs only two to three kilometres from the shore. The Warm North Ca-pe Stream is a factor of great importance to the cli- mate and the economic life of the country. This is a branch of the Guif Stream, which runs from the north of Norway, past Murman and Kanin, towards the double island of Novaia Zemlia. Its mitigating influence upon the climate is most perceptible in western Murman, where it runs at a distance of only 90 — 1 10 kilometres from the coast, and where also it is warmest. It is still of no little importaTice at Gavrilovo in the west of East Murman, for thus far it follows the line of the coast towards the east-south-east, but then it turns due east, while the coast curves to the south-east, so that the mainland no longer feels its influence. The limits of the North Cape Stream are much less definite than those of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic. In addition, however, to its influence on the climate, conclusive evidence of its existence is to be found in its temperature (about 2.5° Centigrade at the end of the winter, 9*^—11° Centigrade in the summer, perceptibly higher than the temperature of the surrounding sea), its clear, blue, transparent water, and above all the remarkable surface current, (22 kilometres in the 24 hours at the North Cape, about 18 kilometres off Murman, and about 30 km. at the eastern side of Sviatoinos). Off ICastern Murman, between the mouth of the \'oronie and Sviatoinos, there is a weak cold coast strearn, which flows from south-east to north-west. The currents in the White Sea have not yet been in\'estigated in detail. As far as is known there are no clearly marked, permanent streams. The tidal changes are very noticeable on the whole coast of Kola Lapmark. On the Murman coast the resulting currents follow the direction of the shore. The flood runs from the west or north-west, the ebb from the south-east or the east. The height of the tide varies on the Murman Coast between 1.8 and 3.7 metres. The spring tide in the neighbourhood of Sviatoinos for example, is over 4.5 metres. The pace of the tidal stream is on the open coast 2.4—3.6 kilometres per hour (1 V2~^ V4 nu^es per hour) while in narrow sounds, for example between the island of Kildin and the mainland, it is 8 — 9 km. (5 miles) per hour. The greatest pace has been observed inside the Kola Fjord, at the mouth of the Tuloma; sometimes in the spring it reaches as much as 14.5 km. (9 miles) per hour. On the southern coast of Kola the tide never reaches a greater height than two metres, but on the east coast, where the flood water from the Northern Arctic Ocean is forced into the narrow »throat» of the White Sea,' its height is 5 — 6 metres at a number of places, and at Triostrova for example, 7 metres or even more. The pace is about 8 km. (5 miles) at the FENNIA 42 No. 3. 13 mouth of the White Sea, in the »throab> at most 6.5 km., and in the main basin and the Gulf of Kandalaks at most 3.5 km. per hour. The saltness of the water varies between 3.2 and 3.4 ^/q on the Murman Coast, is between 2.5 and 2.9 ^/^ in the north of the White Sea, but towards the south, under the influence of fresh water from the rivers, sinks to 1.5 "/q. (The corresponding figure in the Gulf of Finland off Helsingfors is 0.5 o/q). The saltness of the water at the bottom is 3.5 "/^ in the »throat», and 3.0 °/q further south, in the middle of the basin. The sea on the Murman Coast is ice-free during the winter, except that pack-ice sometimes occurs at Sviatoinos and Gavrilovo, driven thither bj' the cold coast stream already mentioned. This pack-ice seems generally to come from the White Sea. Onl)' the fjords wliich penetrate furthest into the land (Kola, Peisen, Uura, etc.) are frozen in their inmost arms, generally from the middle of November to the beginning of May, and some years even longer. The White Sea freezes most winters, as, being shallow and less salt, its surface cools more quickly when autumn comes. Its great gulfs freeze in the middle of November to more than half their length. The Gulf of Mesen alone remains open all the year round, except for a shallow belt by the shore, which freezes. 6. Light and Climate. As practically the whole of Kola Lapmark lies within the Arctic Zone, the length of the da}- varies ver\' greatl}^ at the different seasons. In the southern- most part of Kola, near the Polar Circle, iVIidsummer day and Christmas night each last nearly twentj'-four hours, but on the northern coast of the R^^batchi Peninsula the summer day lasts for 65 days, and the winter night for 60 days. In Murman the long summer da}- begins about May 26th, and comes to an end about July 18th. The midnight sun is, however, seldom visible, as at that sea- son the northern sky is generally covered with clouds. At the end of August artificial light has to be used in the houses, and at night the stars are clearly enough visible for mariners to use them for sextant observations. By the middle of September no more red glow can be seen on the northern horizon at night, and from November 27th to January 17th the night is unbroken. In clear weather however there is for a couple of hours in the middle of the day strong enough light in the south to read by. The darkness of the winter night is to some extent dissipated by the moonsliine and the northern lights. These lat- ter are very often visible, but their light is scarcely stronger than that of the moon. 14 J. G. Grand, Light and Climate. With regard to climate, Kola lyapmark is something of an exceptional area, in that geographical latitude is not conclusive. This is due to the influence of the Gulf Stream. The annual mean temperature is highest in the northernmost part of the territory, on the Rybatchi Peninsula, lowest in the interior of the country and on the east coast. At Vaida-guba, in the north-west corner of the Rybatchi Peninsula, the mean temperature is the same as at Kajana, nearly six degrees further south. There is only a small area in the heart of Kola where it is as low as at Enare, wliich lies in about the same latitude. It must be noted that only a narrow strip round the coast has a real marine climate. The inner arms of the longest fjords have a climate which is quite continental. The annual mean temperature, however, does not everywhere sink from the sea towards the interior of the countr}-. At some places on the Ter Coast for example, the mean temperature is lower than in the interior. ^ The mean temperature in different parts of Kola Lapmark is shown in the following table. These figures must not, however, be regarded as perfectly reliable, as the}^ are based on relatively short obsevations. Station Latitude Longti- tude North East Monthly Mean Temperature. (Centigrade) Highest Lowest Diffe- rence Annual Mean Tempe- rature. Petsamo (Petchenga) Vaida-guda . Alexandrovsk Town of Kola Teriberka . . Sviatoinos Orlov . . Ponoi . . Sosnovets Varzuga . Imandra . Lovozersk 69"31' j 3104' ! 10.3 (July) —14.9 (Feb) 69" 57' 310 58- 69'^ 12' 330 28' 68° 53' 330 0' 69° 10' 350 9' 68° 9' 39O 49' 67° ir 410 22' 67« 8' 410 21' 66" 29' 400 48' 660 20' 36° 37' 670 44' 33O 22' 680 9' 350 6' 8.7 (Aug.) 9.9 (July) 11.3 (July) 9.9 (Aug.) 8.8 ? ,, 8.9 10.8 8.3 11.7 (July) 12.1 11.1 - 7.9 -12.5 -15.9 -11.6 -10.2 -12.8 -13.6 -13.2 -17.4 -16.6 -16.7 24.9 16.6 22.4 27.2 21.5 19.0 ? 21.7 ? 24.4 21.5 29.1 28.7 27.8 —0.75 +0.62 —0.30 1.05 —0.15 —0.75 1.62 —0.45 —1.57 1.20 1.05 2.02 Of the above-named places, Vaida-guba, Teriberka, Sviatoinos, Orlov and Sosnovets are situated right on the sea coast, while Alexandrovsk is a short distance from it. The others all lie in more or less clearly marked conti- nental areas, not excepting Kola and Petchenga (on the Peisen Fjord), both FENNIA 42 No. 3. 15 of wliich lie at the inner extremities of fjords. The differences between the coast and inland climates are reproduced in the appearance of the landscape, for the warmer summers of the inland produce a richer vegetation. What a difference there is in this respect between Vaida-guba and Petschenga for instance, or between Teriberka and Kola! In considering the inland climate the altitude and nature of the surface must be taken into account. Thus, it should be mentioned that though Imandra and Lovozersk lie near together, they are divided by high fells. The rainfall is generally speaking low. There are seldom very wet summers or very snowy winters. The greatest falls have been measured in the western- most areas and on the coast, but even here the moisture practically always falls as a Scotch mist or in the form of exceedingly fine hail. Heavy rain and snow in large flakes are comparativel)^ rare. On the coast the annual rainfall averages 300—400 millimetres (11 ^4"^^ V4 inches) or lower than in a large part of Finland. In the interior of Kola it is only 200—300 millimetres, and in some places scarcely more than 150 millimetres (less than 6 inches). The greatest rainfall, one-fifth or one-fourth of that of the whole year, occurs in July, the least in January or February. For further particulars, see under »climate» in the section on East Carelia. There is scarcely any place in Russia where there is as nmch cloud as on the Murman Coast and in the »thruat» of the White Sea. There are less than 20 clear days in the year. Clouds have been estimated to cover on an average 65 — 75^1 Q of the sky, or a rather higher average than in Finland. In the autumn the percentage in some parts reaches 85. Fog is a great hindrance to navigation and fishing. In the spring and early summer, while there is still ice in the White Sea and near Kolguev, the fog on the Murman Coast is often so thick that it is impossible to see more than fifty yards ahead. Then, if the weather is calm, the condensed fog forms a floating layer of fresh water on the surface of the sea. I^ater in the summer, and in the autumn, fog is less frequent. It then occurs chiefly with a north- westerly or easterly wind, and collects principally in the mouth of the White Sea. Winter fogs occur most often in West Murman. Winds. During the cold season (September to May) the south-west wind prevails. In the spring the wind is generally north-westerl)', in the summer northerly, north-east or easterl}-. Quick changes of the wind are a charac- teristic of Kola I^apmark. Gales occur chiefly at the changes of the seasons. A week or ten days before the autumn equinox, i. e. in the middle of Septem- ber, there is in most years a very strong and devastating northerly gale for three days on end. Winter blizzards generally come from the south-west. 16 ./. G. (jioHd. Litilit and Climate. Natural processes, such as the snow-melting, the budding of the trees, the falHng of the leaves in the autumn, the formation of ice on the water, the mig- ration of tlie birds, etc., show that the division of the year into four equal seasons of three months each does not correspond to the conditions of Kola Lapmark. In addition to December, January and F'ebruary, both November and March must be included in the winter, and the spring must be extended to the end of June. The real summer therefore consists only of July and August, and the autumn of September and October. In Murman, the first spring month, April, is still comparatively cold. The temperature .scarcely rises above free- zing point during the day, and rain and snow-storms are usual. In west Mur- man however, the progress of .spring can be noted. The first migratory birds arrive, and the fishing season begins. On the other hand, it is still full winter in the neighbourhood of Sviatoinos. Only the appearance of seals on the coast suggests that the warm season is approaching. In May the tempera- ture in West Murman rises at midday to 10°— 15" Centigrade (50®— 60*> Fahren- heit), but generally sinks below freezing point at night. Towards the end of the month the inland waters get free of ice, the surface of the tundras thaws, the sunny slopes turn green, and the leaves on the trees come out. It is spring in East Murman. In June, the sunsliine for twenty-four hours in the day would certainly cause the temperature to rise so high that one coilld say high summer had begun, if it were not that the breaking up of the White Sea ice at that season causes a fall of temperature, fog, and sleet. In the real summer months of July and August the surface of the tundras thaws to a depth of a yard or more. Ice or frozen ground is however still to be found in the great peat knolls on fen or shore (Fig. 5), for which reason the Lapps use these for the storage of their foodstuffs. In August the young birds are able to fly, the berries are ripe, toadstools appear, the fish, and with them the fisliing, move to East Murman. The summer is coldest on the Ter Coast, where the mean temperature, at Sosnovets for example, is more than two degrees Centigrade lower than at Ponoi, wliich is .scarcely 15 km. from the coast. In the beginning of September the trees lose their leaves, the birds of passage depart, the fisher- men return from the coasts of the White Sea to their native villages. At the end of the month, after the severe equinoctial gales, the first snow may fall, but will immediatel}' melt again. The day-time tenperature does not sink below freezing until October, and then a covering of ice appears on the marshes and less rapid rivers. In November the winter begins. Sleighing between Archangel and the town of Kola, however, only becomes possible in December. J. G. Grano. Fig. 5. Peat Knoll on the bank of the Voronie River. Photo y. A. Palme n Fig. 6. Rapids in the Tchapoma River. Photo Thord Brenner. Fig. 7. Rapids in the Kola River. Photo y. .-/. Palnieii. Fig. 8. Group of Fir.s by Lake Lujaur. Photo J. A. Pahn,-n. Fig. y. Ukl i'me Forest on the Upper- Ponqi. , ... . ,. Fig. 10. Mixed Foiest of Biich and Fir on \he Lower Reaches of the Ponoi. Photo y. A. Palmen. , Fig. 11. Birch Forest on the Njuammel ,Riv.e7 sn Jliti '.,'''/','', Interior of Kola. Photo J. A. Palmen. FENNIA 42 No. 3. 17 7. Vegetation. The vegetation of the Kola Peninsula consists of the same elements as mark the flora of the Fennoscandian Peninsula in general. It can show most of the species both of the northern pine-forest region, and of the Arctic and Alpine regions. The position of the territory in the extreme east of Fennos- candia gives it, however, a not inconsiderable access of plants wliich are native to the more northerh- districts of European Russia and Siberia, but not found further west. It has therefore a wealth of rare species which has long made the peninsula known to botanists. The Kola Peninsula is intersected by the Arctic limit of pine forest, which has an important effect on the character of the landscape. Roughly speaking, this line runs in a south-easterly direction from the town of Kola to the mouth of the river Danilovka. Thus two-tliirds of the whole territory- is covered with continuous pine-forest, while the rest falls within the Arctic birch or tundra regions. In the Pine- for est area, the fir is unquestionabh^ the chief forest tree. Extensive areas are covered with fir forests of a t3'pe known in northern Fin- land, with an undergrowth of abundant mosses {Hylocomium proliferum and parietinum) and low scrub, which is chiefly whortleberr}-. The following may be mentioned as being the most important of these fir-forest areas; — the banks of the lower Nuortijok and Nuortijarv'i, and their neighbourhood, the country round southern Imandra, and its banks below Umptek, the country north of Umpjaur around Lujaur-urt and the lakes of Eusmjaur and Lujaur, round the Varzuga rivpr, and round the upper course of the Ponoi. The firs in these northern regions grow considerably more slowly than in southern and central Finland, but in favourable positions they attain a gigantic size. Fif- teen to eighteen metres is stated to be a usual height in the Nuortijarvi district, and twenty five metres exceptional. At Tchapoma in the south-east of the territory, where conditions are not quite so favourable, they attain a height of 12—15 metres. Towards the forest limit the fir forests become more sparse, and gradually die away (Fig. 9). Firs occur however as single trees or creeping bushes far north of the pine forest region, and seem to vie with the birch in hardiness. Apparently, the most northerly fir tree grows on the northern shore of the island of Shalin, to the west of the mouth of the Kola Fjord. Generally speaking, the fir marks the limit of the pine-forest region eastwards of Petchenga, that is to say in the greater portion of the territory. The pine is by no means so widespread as the fir. Unmixed pine can only exist on favourable ground, and never occurs except on dry gravel or sand. 2 18 - . Brenner. X'egetation. The underwood is then mostly of a heathy nature with abundant reindeer moss and scrub consisting chiefly of crowberr}- (empetrum) and cowberry (vaccinium vitis-idaea). The finest pine forests are said to be round the upper course of the Nuortijok, on lake Mutkajiirvi east of Nuortijarvi, north of Imandra round the Pietsjok and lake Pietsjaur, round Kandalaks, and in some ])laces on the upper course of the Ponoi, such as on the Jeljok. In these districts the pine timber reaches satisfactory dimensions (Fig. 9). Dense pine woods occur here and there quite near the limit of forestation, as at Kurop- tjevsk, north of the middle reaches of the Ponoi. There pine trees can attain a height of nine to eleven metres, while further east, on the Jiigjok, pines 90 years old are 7 metres high and 13—15 centimetres in dianietre, while those 300 years old are 1 1 metres high and 30—40 centimetres in diameter. The pine seldom becomes a creeping shrub, but solitary examples are still to be found in the neighbourhood of Alexandrovsk. In the valley of the Patsjoki it extends considerably further north than the fir. Mixed forests, especially cases in which birch has made its way among the firs, are common over the whole forest region (Fig. 10). Unmixed birch forest (Fig. 11) also occurs here and there, especially on the river banks, as for in- stance on the lower Nuortijoki, where the birches grow 10—14 metres high, with straight stems. To the north of the limit of fir and pine forest there are tracts of varying size in which the birch is the predominant tree. This birch region does not extend far to the east, but it grows broader towards the west and sends out spurs along all the river valleys which debouch in the Arctic Ocean. North of the pine and fir limit the birch trees are mostly gnarled and sparse; they thrive best deep down in the river valleys and graduallj- die away up towards the barren tundras. The undergrowth varies much according to the soil and situation. On sheltered slopes with a favourable aspect and sufficiency of running water, the birches often form groves with a deep, luxuriant under- growth of herbs and grasses. On level ground which is exposed to the winds, the vegetation between the scattered trunks is generally heathy, and rich in lichens, mosses (polytrichum) and crowberry (empetrum). The birch forest forms the natural transition to the treeless, so-called tundra-formation of the Arctic regions, which extends, except in the river valleys, o\'er the northernmost portion of the whole territory. The vegetation of the tundras is also very varied, depending on the more or less abundant supply of water, the aspect, and shelter from the wind. The dr\er tundras (Fig. 12) are covered with lichen, among which either reindeer moss or the commoner species of piatysma or alectoria ochroleuca are predom- FEXXIA 42 Xo. 3. 19 inant. Arctic species of scrub are abundant, as also various herbs and tussocky grasses. In wide stretches, however, there is no vegetation worth mentioning at all. In the moistest places the tundra becomes almost a bog. The lower layer consists partly of peat mosses {sphagna), but perhaps chiefly of different species of dicranum. Otherwise the vegetation consists principally of cotton grass (eriophorum vaginatum), dwarf birch and grey willow. In places with a southern aspect and protected from the winds, as for instance in water -worn valleys, there not infrequently occurs an abundance of flowering plants, which combine all the splendour of the arctic and the alpine florae. Vegetation of the same type occurs outside the actual tundra area on the higher mountains above the treeline. The forest on the largest fells consists mostly of fir and birch, and extends to a very varying altitude. (On Lujaur- urt for example, the treeline is 223 — 450 metres above the sea, but on Kaita- tunturi, west of Kandalaks, it is 470—510 metres above the sea). Among the fells on which abundant herbs and grasses flourish may be mentioned Kaita- tunturi, Paju-oiva, Katinkultatunturi and Riekkolatvatunturi, all west or north-west of Kandalaks. There are also other unforested areas, besides the arctic or alpine tundras, scattered here and there within the pine and fir forest region. Heaths of consi- derable size occur in the east, between Sosnovets and Akjaur for example, and these, in contrast to the tundras proper, produce abundant heather. There are here, and also in many other districts, large bogs consisting chiefly of sphagna, with the usual types of scrub and sedge (dwarf birch, willow, Empet- rum, Eriophorum, Car ex, etc.). Natural meadows are of frequent occurrence in the pine forest region, but are rarer towards to north. These are partly bog meadows, where sedge predo- minates, and partly on the banks of rivers or lakes, and at places on the coast. The most luxuriant are those on the river banks or on diluvial formations. The grass often reaches waist high, and provides the best possible fodder. The most usual species are calamagrostis, diagraphis, and carex. Meadows of this type are reported from the district round the lower Nuortijoki, round the upper and middle reaches of the river Ponoi, along the valleys of all the rivers which debouch on the White Sea, and also from some rivers on the coast of the Arctic Ocean, as for example the Voronie. Meadows of a somewhat different type, containing various sea-shore plants, occur at places on the coasts, especially west of Kandalaks, and in the Kola fjord, and are particularly frequent on the Rybatchi Peninsula. Aquatic vegetation is fairly abundant in the lakes of the western part of the territory, and consists of the commoner species of potamogeton , hatrachium, 20 J. G. Grand, The Animal Kingdom. etc. It gets sparser towards the ea.st, and the numerous shallow lakes of the tundras are often practically devoid of higher plants. Brown seaweed is the cliief aquatic vegetation of the coast of the Arctic Ocean, fucus, laminaria etc., similar to that found on the Norwegian coast, though less luxuriant. On the shallow, sandy coast of the White Sea there is an abundance of grass- wrack, zoster a marina. Cultivated ground is rare on the Kola Peninsula. Some potatoes and tur- nips are grown at Kandalaks, and at Nuotjaur potatoes and barley. The vegetation of the Kola Peninsula seems to be best suited to cattle rearing. It ought to be possible not only to breed reindeer, but also to rear cattle in much larger numbers than has been done hitherto. The forests should also yield good returns if they were carefully cultivated, in spite of their relatively slow- growth. WiDAR Brenner. 8. The Animal Kingdom. The land animals are in the main the same in Kola lyapmark as in northern Finland. Among mammals, the bear is fairly frequent in the forest regions, as well as the lynx, glutton, wolf, fox, marten, weasel and otter. The arctic fox has lately become rare. The more valuable fur animals, such as the sable and beaver, have long been exterminated. The former were caught during the nineteenth century near the town of Kola and the last beavers were shot half a century ago in the neighbourhood of Tuloma. The elk occurs in the forests of Imandra and on the Varzuga, and the reindeer, though only in small num- bers, in the interior of the country. It is certain. that the Lapps, on their hunt- ing expeditions, take more domestic reindeer who have gone wild, than real wild deer. Badgers have been found in the south-west of Kola Lapmarl'. The squirrel seems to be common everywhere except in Murman, the hare and lemming all over the country. The eastward migrations of the last named, from the fells of Norway and Finland to the Kola Peninsula, and thence back again, have been observed even in the last few decades. Among the forest birds maj' be mentioned the hazel-hen, caipercailzie and black game. The snow-grouse and ptarmigan are common everywhere. There are very few cold-blooded terrestrial vertebrates. Wood lizards and vipers have been ob- served in the southernmost parts of the territory, but otherwise the common frog is the only representative of this group. Very scanty information is avail- able as to the chfferent kinds of fish in the waters. Salmon and salmon trout visit the fresh waters at times in the course of their wanderings, and are eagerly FENNIA 42 Xo. 3. 21 caught, and it is known that pike, grayling, vendace, perch and eelpout occur in the Lappish rivers and lakes. There are few species of insects, but in warm summers there hatch out masses of gnats, mosquitoes and gadflies, to torment both man and beast. From an economic point of view, the marine fauna is incomparably more important than that of the land. Many kinds of seal live near the coast (ringed seal, common seal, Greenland seal, bearded seal, and hooded seal.) Some years these appear in enormous schools off the Murman Coast, and do much damage to the fishing. Walrus have also been observed in the entrance to the White Sea. The commonest species of whale is the rorqual {balcenopterns musculus). Among other animals in this group may be mentioned the blue whale (bala?- nopterus Sibbaldii), hump-backed whale (balaenopterus boops), the white whale (beluga leucus), the sword fish (orca gladiator), the dolphin (delphinus acutus) and the porpoise (phocana comnmnis). Seabirds are very abundant. They breed in enormous colonies on the pre- cipices and rock}- slopes of the IMurman Coast, so that the cliffs are abso- lutely covered with birds, and form »bazaars», as they are called in Murman. In these bird colonies the actual number of species is quite inconsiderable, compared with the countless numbers of individual birds. The most usual in Kola Lapmark are the gulls; — guillemot (uria), little auk (mergulus), puf- fin (fratercula), auk (alca), skua (stercorarius), pochard, garrot, the long- tailed duck, the eider duck, geese, and various ducks. The representatives of the gadns family deserve first mention among the fish. These include the common cod, (G. morrhua), coalfish (G. virens), white sea cod (G. saida), whiting (G. merlangus) and haddock (G. aeglefinus). Halibut (hippoglossus vulgaris) is also commonly caught, as well as different kinds of wolf-fish (anarrhichas), and in the White Sea especially, herring or >>seld» (culpea harengus, V. membras). The capelin (mallotus) or sand-eel (ammo- dj-tes) is used as bait in the cod fishery. Chief among the fauna of the White Sea come the navaga (gadus navaga) and the nelma (stedonus nelma). The picked dog-fish (acanthias vulgaris) is caught in the winter in the Kola and Muotka Fjords. There is an abundant variety of invertebrates (crustaceans, molluscs, echinodernis, etc.) The onl}' ones of direct utility are certain edible crusta- ceans (lithodes, pandalus), mussels (m>i;ilus) and certain lobworms (areni- cola) and crustaceans that are used as bait. Their indirect importance is on the other hand incalculable, for most of the fish and whales live upon and arc therefore dependent on them. When, for example, some decades ago, cer- tain of the marine crustaceans (some species of thysanoessa, boreof auna iner- 22 T. Itkonen, Tlic Lapps. mis, etc.) disappeared from the Murnian waters owing to an unknown cause, this in itself unimportant circumstance caused the blue whales, wliich live upon them, to depart. J. G. Gkano. II. THE POPULATION AND SETTLEMENTS. I. The Lapps. Before the first dawn of history began to throw its light over the north, the Lapps had spread from central Finland and the district round Lakes La- doga and Onega, in a few, scattered colonies, right up to Finmark and the distant coasts of the Kola Peninsula. \'isible monuments of the culture they possessed in this extensive area are to be found in the clumsy stone age re- mains of the so-called Arctic type, which occur even as far up as Jokonga in the north-eastern corner of the Kola Peninsula. Under pressure from the vigorous peoples to the south of them, the defenceless Lappish stock had to choose between absorption b}' the newcomers, or gradually withdrawing further north. Their descendants are now only to be found in that in itself exten- sive area which is called Lapland, and even there only as small »islands» among other nationalities. Historical evidence shows, however, that the number of the Lapps has not diminished, but rather increased through the course of time, and this seems .still to be the case in the Finnish, Swedish and Norwegian Lapmarks; in Kola Lapmark on the other hand there seems to be no in- crease and perhaps they are rather diminishing in numbers. All the peoples with whom the Lapps have come into contact have appea- red as tax gatherers; — first the Kvaens, whose affinity is still in doubt, the Carelians, who ruled the old Perm, or land of the Biarmians, and other Finns, the Birkarlar, who were probably also Finnish, then the Russians, the Nor- wegians, and finally the Swedes. The taxes were certain!}^ at first collected very irregularly, and there were no precisely defined frontiers between the territories of the different nationalities. Presently, from the beginning of the ninth century, the nmtual relations of the different states began to be regula- ted. The frontiers of taxation areas did not generally coincide with political frontiers. Some Lapps only paid taxes to one prince, (the Swedish Lapps, for example), but others paid to two or even three masters. It may be sup- posed that in this last case the Lapps were \ery badly off, for resistance on their part could not be thought of. The most remarkable event in the early history of the Russian Lapps FENXIA 42 No. 3. 23 (Fig. 13) i.s their conversion to Christianity. This took ])art for the most i)art in the beginning of the sixteenth century (up to A. L). 1533), through the la- bours of the Greek Catholic monks I'eodorit Solovetskoi and »Saint» Trifon. The former of these worked among the Ter and Kola Lapps, the latter among the Muotka, Petchenga and Patsjoki I^apps. It is said that the conversion of the former Lapps was soon accomplished, owing to the fact that colonists from Novgorod were already living among them, while on the other hand there was no Russian population in the western part of Kola Lapmark until a later period. Another contributing cause was that Feodorit was not so severe against heathendom and magic as Trifon. Feodorit is said to ha\-e written a Lappish spelling book (or according to another account, a prayer book), which has, however, not been preserved to posterity. After the conversion. Kola Lap- mark began to be called »White Lapland» in contradistinction to »Black Lap- land» which was still heathen. The Christianity among the Lapps was, how- ever, presumably only nominal in those times, for even toda}' it is \-ery super- ficial in Kola Lapmark. Only about twenty years ago there was a great sacri- fice of reindeer in Semiostrovski in honour of the ancient gods. One result of the introduction of Christianity was that the Lapmark was regarded as the property of the Tsar, which he could give away as he pleased, with its revenues and inhabitants. The Russians round the White Sea, the so-called »pomores», call the Lapps their »tributary peasants» (krestjane), but themselves »free fishermen». Trifon founded the Petchenga monastery as a point of support for Christianity, and Ivan the Terrible, in a letter of November 22nd, 1556, endowed it with extensive territory in western Murman, — viz. the Muotka, Litsa, Uura, Patsvik and Neiden Fjords, with the Lapps living there. Trifon got the Lapps to begin to establish themselves round Petchenga and take to a more settled mode of living. This had, however, no lasting effect. In 1589, Finnish guerilla bands destro^^ed the monastery, which was subsequently removed to Kola, and obtained, either from the Tsar or by purchase from the Lapps, a still more extensive territory on the Kola and Tuloma rivers. As soon as the monastery grew rich its monks began to op- press the surrounding Lapps. For example, in the year 161 1, when the Danes had attacked the town of Kola and slain many Lapps, the monaster}- appro- priated their property, although they had left heirs who were not ^-et of age. A complaint laid before the government brought no help, until in 1701 Peter the Great withdrew the privileges of the monastery. The long union with Russia has necessarily left its traces among the Lapps of the Kola Peninsula. Knowledge of Ru.ssian is usual, especially among the men; a number of borrowed words have been introduced into the Lapp Ian- 24 T. likoncn, The Finns. guage, and foreign customs have been adopted. The Russian influence is most clearly seen in the coastal districts, and is less strong in the interior, especially in the western forest area. The Russian Lapps are divided according to their language into two main groups; (1) Tuloma Lapps (Suonikyla, Nuortijarvi, Patsjoki, Petchenga, Muotka) and (2) Kola Lapps, who live in (a) Akkala and Imandra, (b) Kildin (the Kola Fjord, Lovosero, \'oroninski, Liavosero) and (c) the Ter Coast (Jokonga, Lumbovski, Ponoi, Kamenski, Kuropteyevsk, Sos- novets). In addition to these Greek Catholic Lapps, who are usually called »skolts» there are in Kola Lapmark and West Murman a number of Lutheran Lapps who have migrated thither from Fiumark and Enare. These mostly live in the neighbourhood of Muotka, and are generally reindeer breeders. The Rus- sians call them »filmans». 2. The Finns. The first contact between the Finns and the Lapps was of a hostile nature. The best known conflicts took place in the years 1589 — 91, when dwellings were destroyed on the coast of the Arctic Ocean and the Wliite Sea, and Rus- sian, Carelian and Lappish inlmbitants were slain. The memories of these times are still preserved by the Lapps in legends about the fighting. In the middle of the nineteenth century the Finns began to take an important part in the settlement of the Murman Coast. The famine years of the eighteen- sixties forced the inhabitants of the province of Uleaborg, in particular, to migrate from their homes in large bodies, and to seek a living somewhere else. A number of families removed to Kola Lapmark, where the possibilities of a livelihood were already known from earlier fishing expeditions. In 1864 the governor of Archangel sent a certain Anion to enquire into the conditions of these newcomers. Their numbers were then counted to be something over 100 persons, in nine Finnish, 8 Norwegian and 3 Swedish families. Amon found their economic conditions quite satisfactory, but remarked that it would be better for them to live less scattered, as they could then send their children to school, and possibly obtain a pastor of their own faith. The}' would also be better able to defend themselves against foreign trappers, who made their wa>' to the Arctic Ocean in large numbers. He suggested Uura as a place of settlement for them. The Russian government was ardent for the settle- ment of Murman, and tried to do what it could to assist the matter, and in November 1868 an imperial decree in nine paragraphs was published, which Fig. 12. Tundra Landscape in Northernmost Kola. Lichen- covered Moor with Birch Bushes and Dwarf Birches inthe Neighbourhood of Lake Ryhpjaur. Photo y. A. Palmt-H. '^^^•.f3-^ Hv^!- ,'- *« , , . - . . . ^ Fig. 13. Kola Lapps from the Neighbourhood "df" L'ake' Lifj'alu'.' Photo 7. W. Palnuht. Fig. 14. Town of Kola and Mouth of the Kola River. Photo y. A. Palmen. ■ - ^ ' jJHHgM *■ '. ■ ^ E fc^ :.r*;'^ ■t»- fi» » j : ■% ; - ; ^^S^^S^^^f*? ^ "--\'' • • • -^ ■IT-.. . ,..d» Fig. 15. Fishing Village of Ponoi on the Pouoi R-ver. Photo //'. Ramsay. FENNIA 42 No. 3. 25 promised special advantages to the settlers in Murnian. Its most important clauses were the following; (a) For six years after the issue of the decree the colonists may carry on every kind of trade and occupation without paying taxes, and may import free of duty all kinds of industrial products and other uni)rohibited goods, both for their own use and for sale among the settlers; (b) The administration of the government may grant loans of 50— lUU roubles from the imperial funds for a period of six years on mortgage or other security; (c) The settlers have the right both to buy and to borrow seed from the imperial stores; (d) The settlers have the right to hunt furred animals and birds, and to fish in the neighbouring waters and rivers; (e) They are released from the obligation of using stamped paper, and from, having soldiers billetted upon them, for six years, from military service for three conscription terms, calculated from the time of migration, from taxes and levies for nine years, reckoned from the time of migration, and (f) The settlers have the right to make all their applications to the admi- nistration of the government in the Finnish or Norwegian languages. A weak point in the ordinance was that it contained no provisions regarding the rights of property in land and forests, the next most important after the fishing rights. If it was the intention to introduce here the same conditions as prevailed in Russia, where the forests belonged to the state (a certain quan- tity of timber and fuel being allotted to the settlers j^early), those conditions were quite unsuited to the Finns, who argued that the farm included full rights of property in both forest and other land. The ownership of meadow land was in practice indefinite, for it was taken b}- the first comer, and tliis gave rise to constant disputes. Another flaw in the decree was that it made no church or school arrangements, wliich the colonists were obvioush' too poor to make for themselves. The Finns, remarkably enough, considered that this responsibility lay not with Russia but with Finland. This lack was to some extent supplied, owing to the fact that a large number of the settlers were I^estadians, and had their own preachers and teachers. Further west, the inliabitants relied on the services of pastors from Norway. A general com- plaint at first was that there prevailed on the coast a state of semi-lawless- ness, resulting in insecurity of life and property. 26 T. Itkorien. The Finns. The decree of 1868 mentions the administration of justice with the utmost brevity. Its last paragraph provides. »As the ordinance of February 19th 1861 charged the governor of Archangel with the duty of providing for the administration of justice in the settlements, it is also for him to provide sepa- rate legal administration for the settlers and for the Lapps. » In consequence of this another volost was established in Western ^Murman (between the Kola Fjord and Finmark), the admiru'stration of which was entrusted to a foreman (starshin) and a clerk (pisar). More important legal matters were decided by the proper justice of the peace (mirovoi). One great disadvantage to the settlers was the free spirit trade; rum, in particular, was obtained from Norway, and sold in large quantities, both by the immigrants and by merchants. The unsatisfactor}- state of things during the first decades is shown by the fact that at times there was a very consi- derable emigration from Murman to America. Thus in the year 1882 the number of emigrants was sixty to seventy or one twelfth of the whole number of inhabitants. Happily, the desire to emigrate afterwards disappeared, so that the numbers of the Finns increased considerably. The decree of 1868 was supplemented in 1876 and subsequently. The law of December 28th 1890 establishes the following rights; (1) every family settled or settling on the Murman Coast and under the protection of the gover- nor's office has the right to obtain a loan of 50—150 roubles, free of interest, to be repaid within six years; (2) every family arriving on the Murman coast can obtain a building grant of 100—200 roubles for the purchase of timber, which is to be repaid within six years. The oldest Finnish colonies are Pummanki (Zemlianaia) and Uura. The former was of old a centre for those who went to fish in the Russian portion of the Arctic Ocean, ^y degrees Finns ha\-e spread over the whole territory; to the Patsjokr (there is an important settlement on its lower course, at Sal- mijar^'i), Filmanskoie, Stolbova, Petchenga, Muotka, Pummanki, Kervano, Vaida-guba, Supuska, Tsypnavolok, Litsa, Kakkari, the Kassi Fjord, Aara, Uura, the Saani Fjord, Kildin, the Saita Fjord, and many places on the Kola Fjord, such as Toros-ostrov, Tyyva, Titovka, Salnij, Vajenga, Bielokamensk and Alexandrovsk. They are also found scattered over the interior on the lower course of the river Tuloma, at Niva on Nuortijarvi, in Suonikyla, and Akkala in Juonni. On the other hand, they have not settled in liaste' n Mur- man< except in Teriberka. The chief occupation of the coast settlers is natu- rally sea-fishing, especially for cod. They also generally rear cattle as well, for there is no lack of pasture. Many make a supplementary income by a little trading, for which there are goodopportunites, as the import of FENNIA 42 NO. 3. 27 wares is free of duty. In addition to the sea-fishing, the inhabitants on the Kola Fjord catch salmon in the early summer; most of the fishing places on the western shore belong to the settlers, while those on the east shore belong to the Lapps, and are divided out by lot for three years at a time. The chief occupation in the interior is cattle rearing, for wliich the extensive, grassy shores of the rivers and lakes offer excellent opportunities. Potatoes and root-crops are grown, though to no great extent. The P'inns in the Patsjoki valley constantly go over to Norway, to work in the mines at Kirkna^s; wander- ing Finnish timber-floaters are found as forest workers all over the forest regions of Kola Lapmark. The interior of Lapmark would certainly have been nmch more thickly populated if the Russian government had not recently been afraid that that area would become Finnish, and not onlj' refused to Finnish subjects the right to found new settlements, but even begun to evict earlier settlers; some of them were even regarded as ^•agaborrds, because they had not got the neces- sary permits. The Russian peasants on the other hand have evinced neither the wish nor the power to colonise these forest districts. 3. The Russians. Following in the wake of the Novgorod tax-gatherers, Russian fishermen began to make their way to Lapmark at a comparatively early period, and some of them settled down and stayed there. Russian sources mention Kola (Fig. 14) as a fishing place as early as 1263, and Ter even in 1216, when the Russian taxgatherer living there was murdered. The other settlements, such as Kandalaks, Porja-guba and Ponoi (Fig. 15) are of a later period, the end of the fifteenth century. The route to Lapmark most used by the Russians went over the White Sea to Kandalaks, and along Imandra to Kola. During the twelfth century, parties of fishermen were sent from Novgorod to the Arctic Ocean and the White Sea, with a monopoly of the Ter Coast. The foreign northern races and the Novgorodians had, until the foundation of the Solo- vets monastery, fishing places on the island of Solovets in the White Sea, which they visited in the summer, but left for the winter. Towards the end of the thirteenth century, the Tartar invasion caused a wave of migration northward. Thus people removed to Trinnis (at the mouth of the Ponoi), where they coalesced with the Lapps, and some also to Finmark, e. g. to Malangen (south of Tromso). It is said that within seven years, 1271 — 1278, there were no less than 196 raiding expeditions to Finmark and Haloga- land, which caused a dispersion of the Norwegian population there. Carelians 28 T. Itkonen, The Russians. were probably the chief participants in these expeditions, which were repea- ted in the years 1302, 1316 and 1323. In the years 1323 and 1326 the northern territory of Russia was exactly defined by the delimitation of the frontiers against Sweden and Norway. The complications continued during the suc- ceeding century. In 1415 the Norwegians made a plundering expedition to the entrance to the White Sea, and the valley of the \'arzuga, while in 1420 the Russians replied by an attack in revenge on iMnmark and Halogaland, which had such success that Russians settled there for long periods, and in 1456 a part of the former population was converted to the Greek Catholic faith. The Norwegians living on the Kola Fjord were thrust out, and Care- Hans fell on the western parts of Russian lyapmark, and absorbed a number of I^apps. Peace was concluded between the belligerents in the year 1493. Danish chronicles relate that the Murman Coast was twice settled in the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries, but then abandoned again owing to bad fish- ing years. The legends of this period mention a pirate named Anikij (of un- known nationality, according to Friis' conjecture a Dutch merchant named A. Neich); he is said to have exacted tribute from the fishermen of Tsyp-navolok for a long time, until he was slain by the son of a bo^-ar. It is possible that Petchenga, which has been at times a place of exile for criminals, was first settled during the same centuries. It is probable that Kola and the rest of the coast was at that time uninhabited, but soon resettled, when better times came. There seems to have been a monaster}- at the end of the Peisen Fjord (called in later descriptions »lower Petchenga»), whicH, however, was destroyed early in the following century. The evidence is found in Danish sources, and also in the Tsars' letters (Augu.st 1585 and March 1586), which in order to prove that Lapmark belonged of old to Russia, mention the existence of the Petchenga monastery a hundred years previously. Axel Magnus even gives the j-ear of the monastery's foundation, 1475, and the name of its founder, Tushan. Feodorit built the Kola monastery between the years 1530 and 1540, but he left it shortl)^ afterwards, having quarrelled with the monks, after which only some servants of the monastery remained. Trifon refounded the Pet- chenga monastery soon after 1550, probably on its present site on the Peisen river, about thirty kilometres above the place where that river runs into the Peisen Fjord. A time of great prosperity then began for Murman, which did not, however, last long. There arose a centre of Russian foreign trade, with goods gathered from the Dvina, from Olonets, and from more distant places. There was for twenty five years at the end of the sixteenth century a period of real free trade in Murman, industry' developed, and people thronged thither FENNIA 42 No. 3. 29 from round the White Sea and probably also from Finmark, wliich was at that time oppressed by the monopoly of the Bergen merchants. The number of monks was in 1565 fifty, and the servants of the monastery numbered 200. At the same time the monastery also got a foothold in Finmark, where it occu- pied the salmon-fishing place of Kiberg. Kola was fortified in 1583, and that town became the centre of administration for the district. Vaida-guba is also mentioned at this period as an important centre of trade and fishing, as well as Ts}-p-navolok. English trade made its way chiefly to Archangel. Free trade came to an end in Murman, and imperial taxes began to be levied in the year 1665, and then began the economic downfall of Kola I^apmark. The fisliing was sometimes supervised by companies, sometimes by private individuals, but in either case, no one troubled about the good of the inhabi- tants. In the eighteenth century, the Murman fishing constantly decreased, and the Norwegian imports into the harbours on the White Sea coast in- creased from year to year. This was also the case in the beginning of the nine- teenth century. A history of the colonisation in that period ought to mention that a group of >>01d Believers» migrated to Ponoi, where the}' thrived so well that they by degrees completely absorbed the Lappish inhabitants. Otherwise this Russian element in the population only appears on the south coast of the Kola Peninsula, at Kandalaks, Porja-guba,Umba, Kuzo- men, Varzuga and Tetrino, and in Murman cliiefly in the towns of Kola and Alexandrovsk, and to some extent in Petchenga, Gavrilovo and Rynda. The Russians have not succeeded in settling the whole stretch of coast, although their settlers had a decidedly favoured position in the matter of state support. Generally speaking, except for a few traders, the Russians form the poorest section of the population of the Kola Peninsula. In addition to the settled Russian population, mention must also be made of the very numerous migra- tory Russian population^ which comes to Murman annually for the four fish- ing months. 4. Other Nationalities. The'Noi'U'cgians were the first people, other than the Lapps, to know the arctic coast of the Kola Peninsula. The first historic information about these regions is the account given by Ottar in A- D. 875 to king Alfred the Great of England about his journey to the land of the Biarmians. There were also armed encounters in the ninth centtury between Norwegians and Carelians and .Kvapns in Lapland. After that time, Norwegian seamen made many trading and plundering expeditions to these regions, as for example in A. D. 918 and 30 T. Itkonen, Other Nationalities. 1025. On these maritime adventures they harried and levied tribute from the inhabitants of the interior of the country. The \'ikings even had fortresses on the coast of both Finniark and the Kola Peninsula, for example at Trinnis, in the Ponoi region, as has been mentioned. Although in the ele- venth century the Lyngen Fjord was declared to be the boundary between Norway and Novgorod, the Norwegians continued to levy tribute on th« Kola Peninsula as far as the Ter Coast right up to the beginning of the seventeenth century. A settled Norwegian colony existed in the west of the Kola Penin- sula in the fifteenth century, for it is recorded ' that the Russians had then driven it from the Kola Fjord. The Russian colony diminished in the year 1665, and from that time the Murman fishing industry began to decline, remaining crippled until the middle of the nineteenth century, and throughout this period western Murman was, from the point of view of trade, in the Nor- wegian sphere of interest. Norwegian colonists began to migrate thither in the eighteen- fifties, and towards the end of the nineteenth century their num- bers reached a couple of hundred. They lived chiefly in Kervanto, Vaida- guba, Tsypna\-olok, and on Kildin, carrying on sea-fishing, and to some extent also cattle rearing and trade There are now only a few Norwegian families left in Murman. The unfriendly attitude of the Russian authorities has made it difficult for them to remain there. The Carelians levied tribute from the I^apps of old and continued to do so even after they came under the rule of Novgorod. It is probable that they took a considerable part in the colonisation of the Kola Peninsula, side by side with the Russians, whose annals do not generalh- mention them sepa- rately. It has already been stated that the Carelians settled down in Kola Lap- mark in the fifteenth century, and that some of the Lapps coalesced with them. They have always taken part in the Murman fishery in large numbers. Some hundreds of Carelian settlers are to be found in Kandalaks in the south, and in Petchenga and Gavrilovo in the north. It nmst finally be mentioned that in the last decades of tht nineteenth cen- tury Zirianians migrated thither from the Izhma, a tributary of the Petchora, as well as a number of Samoyeds. The latter breed reindeer on a large scale, and in spite of their small numbers are the owners of a large proportion of the rein- deer in the territory! There are some tens of families of Zirianians, chiefly living in Lovozersk in the centre of the Kola Peninsula. The}' are a very vi- gorous people, and will certainh' preserve their native characteristics. . T. Itkonen. FIvXXIA 42 No. 3. 31 5. Statistics of Population. In 1897 there were in the Province of Alexandrovsk (then called Kola) 9,291 inhabitants. Of these 5,865 (63 "/o) were Russians, 1,724 (18«/o) Lapps, 1,056 (12 0/0) Finns, 256 (2.57o) Carelians, 117 (1.37o) Zirianians, 25 Samoyeds and 248 other nationalities (more than 200 of these Norwegians). No detailed census of the whole province ha"s been taken since that time. In 1915 the population was estimated at 14,700 persons, 12,700 in rural areas and 2,000 in the towns. The density of population would thus be only 0. 1 per square kilometre. — The number of the Lapps, which amounted in 1906 to 1,797, was estimated in 1802 at 1,793,. in 1880 at 1,749, in 1889 at 1,763 and in 1900 at 1,834 persons. A statistical expedition under Romanov and Rosanov was at work on the Murman Coast in 1899. Information obtained by them gav^e the population in that year as 460 in Hast Murman, 261 round the Kola Fjord (excluding the two towns), and 1,405 in West Murman, a total of 2,156 inhabitants on the Arctic coast. This population was divided into 40 settlements, of which 30 contained less than 10 homesteads, and only 5 more than 20. About half of the whole population of Murman (50.9 "/q) lived in these larger settlements. There were three settlements of more than 40 homesteads, namely Teriberka in East Murman, and Uura and Petchenga in West Murmaii. The various nationalities, reckoned in families, were as follows: Bast 1 , ^. , West Murman ^^^^ ^^"'^ Murman Total Families Finns 1 ( l.o7o) ^ "^4 (710 70) 139 (50.5 7o 54 (19.6 7o 17 ( 6.2 o/„ 27 ( 9.8 % 34^(12.4 7o 4 ( 1.5 o/„ 184 (41.9 7o) 76(17.4 0/„) 22 ( 5.0 7o) 32 ( 7.3 7o) 119 (27.; 0/0) 6 ( 1.3 0/0) Carelians 21 (20.6 7o) 1 ( 1.6 7o) Ivapps 2 ( 1.9 7o) ; 3 ( 4.9 7o) Norwegians ' — 5 1 8.0 7o) Russians 77 (75.s7o) \ 8 (12.9 7o) Other NationaHties 1 ( l.o7o) 1 ( l-6 7o) Total S 102 [62 275 439 There were 1,073 men and 1,083 women in the Murman population in the year 1899, or 100.9 women to 100 men. Women formed the largest proportion in West Murman, where there were 104 women to 100 men, and the smallest in the settlements on the Kola Fjord (only 93.6 women to 100 men). The average number of persons in a family was 4.9 (2.44 males and 2.46 females). The average was largest in West Murman (5.2), and least in East Murman (4.3). 32 ./• G. Grand, Statistics of Population. The distribution of the population over the different parts of the Murnian Coast was, according to a calculation made in 1914, as follows: East Murman | Kola Fjord West Murnian I Total Settlements . '^ i '^ ^^ ^^ Homesteads . i 218 ! 69 314 601 Inhabitants . 1.014 332 1.836 3.182 Thus, in the course of fifteen years the settled population of Murman had increased from 2,156 to 3,182, or by about 1,000 persons, — that is to say by nearly half the number of the total population in 1899. These figures do not include the fishermen who visit Murman in the summer, and generally num- iber 2,500-3,000. In the Patsjoki (Pasvik) district there were in 1899 living on Russian terri- tory 210 persons, 107 males and 103 females. These formed 34 famihes, 25 Finnish and 9 Lappish, thus making an average of 6.2 persons per family, or considerably more than on the Murman Coast. According to investigations made on the spot by W. Olin and T. Itkonen, the present (1918) population of West Murman seems to amount to about 1,900 persons, of whom about 1,300 (68.5 o/^) are Finns, about 250 (13.1 o/q) Lapps, about 25 Zirianians, 5 Norwegians and 320 (16.8 ^g) Russians. About 400 persons live round the Kola Fjord, 295 (74 ^/q) Finns, 5 Lapps, and about 100 (25 ''/o) Russians, while in the area of the rivers Pasvik (Patsjoki) and Pei- sen or Petchenga (Petsamojoki), there are about 565 inhabitants, 200 (36°/o) Finns, 290 (51 ^/q) Lapps, and 75 (H^'/o) Russians. Thus, this portion of Kola Lapmark would contain in all about 2,865 persons, of whom the Finns form about 1,795 (62.8 7o), the Lapps about 545 (19 7o), the Zirianians 25, the Nor- wegians 5 and the Russians about 495 (17.3*/o). The total population of the coast villages of the Ter and Kandalaks Coasts (including Kolvitsa and Kandalaks), amounted in 1910 to 5,893 persons. Out of this total, 5-24 lived in the yolost of Ponoi, 1,390 in Tetrino, 2,397 in Kuzo- men, 881 in Umba, and in the part of the volost of Kandalaks belonging to Kola Lapmark, 701. The largest centres of population were A'arzuga with 1,001 inhabitants, Kuzomen with 780, Kandalaks with 596, L^mba with 541 and Tetrino with 455. The great majority of the population were of Russian nationality. In the ^-ear in question Lapps were chiefly to be found in the volost of Ponoi, where they amounted to 350 souls, and Carelians in Kolvitsa, 105. Fig. 16. Potsonkuja Fell Hut, Nineteen Kilometres South of the Town of Kola. Photo J. A. Pnlmen. Fig-. 17. Going out to Fish, from the Village of F&uoi. Septem- ber 15th 1887. Photo J. A. Palmen: FKXNIA 42 No. 3. 33 The central and western interior, tlie Lapp volost of Kola, contained in 1910 1,997 inhabitants. 30 of these were Finns (7 in Hnlkkola and I.,uttojoki and 23 in Kuhala on the Juonnijoki), while the rest were Lap])s 1,766, Rus- sians 159, and Zirianians and vSanioyeds 42 souls. There are no trustworthy statistics of the town population of recent years. Since the construction of the Murnian railway there are supposed to be at present about 1,000 inhabitants in Kola and about 600 in Alexandrovsk. The latter town was founded in 1899, and has grown slowly. Kola is one of the oldest towns in Russia, mentioned as a fishing place as early as 1263 (see ab- ove), and was fornierh' the capital of the province. At times in the past it has had a larger population. There are no statistics of the population of the newly founded Murmansk, or — as it was at first called — RomanovnaMur- maue. According to the ecclesiastical statistics, the birthrate in the Greek Catholic population in the district of Alexandrovsk was 33 per thousand in the year 1899, and five j^ears later, in 1904, was 38 per thousand. The death ra^ for the same years was respectively 20 and 30 per thousand so that the increase of population was 13 and 8 per thousand in the two years respectively. The smallest natural increase took place among the Lapps. According to Ko- panski their annual increase in West Murman is 18 per thousand and in East Murman 7 per thousand. J. G. Grano. III. MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. Steamboats and small vessels ply'on the Murman Coast all the year round, During the summer, from the end of May till the middle of September, when fishing is everywhere in progress, the steamships of the Murman company which ply between Archangel and Vardo put in once a week (two vessels in turn) at ever}- fishing place of importance from Alexandrovsk eastwards. Traffic on the west coast is similarly served once a week by a smaller vessel belonging to the same company. During the winter a vessel plies once a month along the whole Murnian Coast, but in case of gales or fog it does not put in to all the stations, omitting cliiefly those w^here anchorage is dangerous or inconvenient. The sea-traffic is protected by life-saving stations, lift-hoats and lighthouses. The last-named have been put up in a number of places, three on the Ter Coast and 1 4 on the Murman. The interior of the Kola Peninsula proper is fairly deserted in the sunnner, 3 34 T. Itkonen and J. G. Gyano, Means of Coinnumicatit ii. ' as the inhabitants from most of the villaj^es move to the coast to fish. Water- ways are therefore of no great importance as lines of traffic, especially as the ■ rivers are made difficult by rapids near their mouths, and are hard to navi- gate. The most important of them are the Ponoi and the \^arzuga. Condi- tions are different in the west of Kola Lapmark, for there the settled popula- tion of the interior makes its way during the summer to the numerous small lakes. There are here three main routes, namely (1) the Imandra water-sys- tem which flows out at Kandalaks; this is only divided by a narrow neck of land from the Kola river, which connects with the Kola Fjord and with a water system stretching westwards right to the Finnish frontier. (2) The wa- ter system of the Tuloma river, which flows out in the Kola Fjord. This in- cludes the long lake of Nuortijarvi, and the rivers Luttojoki and Xuortijoki, which rise in Finnish territory, and are navigable though they form many rapids. (3) the river Pasvik (Patsjoki), which flows out in the Varanger Fjord and is used by a number of the inhabitants of Enare as a trade route to Nor- way." The navigation of this river is much assisted by the rollers which have been constructed in three places on the Norwegian side, beside the largest rapids. Qji all these waterways there is a very cheap boat posting system, coni- pulsorily worked by the Lapps, which has been established for the use of the Russian officials. The land traffic routes are soon enumerated. A high road has been marked out from Petchenga to Enare: it was under construction in the 3'ears 1915 — 1 6, much the greatest part of it at the expense of the Finnish state, but it was then abandoned, so that long stretches of it are now impracticable. There is a »good road'> from Trifonnieme to the Petchenga monaster}-. There is a kind of ditched bridle path from Kola to Kandalaks, but the most important is naturally the railway from Kandalaks to Alexandrovsk, which has lately been completed. There are no roads at all in the rest of Kola Lapmark. There are onlj' patlis stretching between the different dwelling places, and not always even these.' Traffic is livelier in the winter, and proceeds along winter roads, which have been drawn over suitable surfaces, generall}' rivers, lakes and bogs, and are kept open by those who travel with reindeer caravans. A posting system has been established for the use of the officials, with stations in the coastal area at Gavrilovo, Pummanki (Bumansfjord) and Petchenga, in the interior at Kola, in the pogost of Kildin, at Nuortijarv-i, Kitsa, Pulosersk, Eovosersk, Liavosersk, Semiostrovsk, Jagelnyibor, Zasheika, Muotka and Pasvik. Where there are long distances of 100 versts or more, solitan- »nioun- tain huts» (Fig. 1 6) have been established for travellers, e. g. between Alexan- drovsk and Kola and between Kildin and Teriberka. FKXXIA 42 Xo. 3. 35 There is telegraphic coiiiDiiiiiicatioii from Kein to Kandalaks and thence on to the town of Xohi, from Kandalaks via Umba to Kuzomeu, and in Murnian from Kola eastwards via Teriberka to Rynda and P^ast Litsa, via Alexandrovsk to the Rybatclii Peninsula and Petchenga, and finally from Alexandrovsk via Petchenga, Ivalo and Rovaniemi to Petersburg. There is telephonic communi- caiioii between Enare and Petchenga, between the latter place and Vuorema or Gransjakobsalv on the one side and thence on to Innmark, and on the other side to Kola and Alexandrovsk. There are also telephone lines from several fishing places and lighthouses to the nearest telegraph station, for gi\'ing in- formation about the fish. There are post of /ices in all the larger settlements and villages on the telegraph lines. T. ITKONEN and J. G. Grano. IV. ECONOMIC LIFE. I. Husbandry. The climatic conditions in Kola Lapmark are not favourable to agrivid- tiire, for which reason there is exceedinglj^ little tilled ground. Barley is the only grain that grows, and even that only to a limited extent in the western part of the territory. The Finns have grown this grain on the Pasvik river for nearly half a century. The sowing takes place in the beginning of June, and the crop — which occasionally yields a tenfold return — is harvested in the end of August. Potatoes are grown in most of the settlements in the interior, here and there in Murman, and on the coast of Kandalaks. The highest yield in the valley of the Pasvik is eight or ninefold, in Uura, in West Murman, five or sixfold. In East Murman potato growing does not pay. The frost often does damage, and the tubers are stunted, »like peas». Turnips do better, often attain the size of a saucer in East Murman, and are very tasty. Gardening in general, and at least turnip growing, ought to be possible all over Murman except in the extreme north, and far to the east. In favourable years not only potatoes and turnips can be grown in West Murman, but also onions, swedes, black radishes, radishes, lettuce and parsley, and even green peas. Cattle-rearing pa3-s better than agriculture. For natural reasons, reindeer are most generally kept. There are large numbers of sheep. In the most west- erly parts of Kola lyapmark, where the river valleys afford good feeding grounds, cattle are also kept. Cows even can be seen grazing on the barren rocky shores, where "green meadows only nominally exist. The fodder is supplemen- ted b}^ lichen, seaweed, cods' heads and willow leaves. Horses are kept to a 36 /. G. Grand, Fishing. lesser extent, as their usefulness does not correspond to their cost in these regions where there are few roads and little hay. The breeding of pigs and goats is exceptional. There were in 1908 in the Province of Alexandrovsk a total of 132 horses, 1,952 cattle, 67,638 reindeer and 4,628 sheep. Information collected in the year 1899 states that there were then on the Murman Coast, excluding the towns of Kola and Alexandrovsk and the Petchenga monastery, 10 horses, (most of them on the Rybatchi Peninsula), 714 V2 cattle (young auinials under one year being counted as a half), 580 of them being in West Murman, 3,147 reindeer (1,809 V2 in West Murman), 1,461 sheep (1,082 in West Murman), 11 goats (on the Kola Fjord), 6 pigs (in Tsypnavolok and on Kildin) and a few hens (in Tsypnavolok). In the same year the Finns living on the Pasvik river had 4 horses, 90 cattle, 114 reindeer and 74 sheep. 1,834.6 tons of ha}^ were harvested in the whole district in the year 1905. 2. Fishing. Fisliiug is the most important means of livelihood in Kola Lapniark. The chief hauls in the IMurman waters, which are influenced by the Gulf Stream, are cod, halibut and sea-cat. On the White Sea coast salmon, herring and navaga are caught, and in the interior chiefly salmon. The Murman cod- fisher}' is sea-fishing which demands sea-worth}' vessels, comparatively ex- pensive tackle, and the labour of at least 3—4 persons. The fishing on the Ter and Kandalaks Coasts and in the interior, on the other hand, can be carried on by those who are less well off, and by single indi\dduals, even women or children. (Fig 17). Thus the Murman fishery is sharply distinguished from the fishery in the other parts of Kola Lapmark. Cod first appear early in the spring in the Varanger Fjord, and then slowly make their waj^ eastwards. It is the movements of this fish wliich make spring the most important fishing time in West Murman, wliile in East Murman it is the summer and autumn. The spring fishers (»vesliniaki») make their way as early as March, before travelling gets bad, from Kandalaks across the Kola Peninsula to Murman. The settlers living on the Arctic coast join them, and they sail further eastwards in boats. The most important fishing grounds for the spring fishing are situated outside the Rybatchi Peninsula. The fish generally leave West Murman in the end of June, and by the beginning of July the summer fishing in East Murman is in full swing. The summer fishers (»letniaki:>) arrive by sea shortly before that time, from the coasts of the White Sea, and settle down at the fishing places, especially those situated in the Kola Fjord. FKXXIA 42 Xf). 3. * 37 The organisation of the Murnian fishery has until quite recently been purely capitalistic. The capital necessary to pay the boat's crew and fishermen, as well as the boat and tackle, belong to one individual, the master, who often takes no part in the work at all. The other members of the party sink nothing in the enterprise except their labour power. The much described and debated relationship between employer and workers wliich thus arises in Murman and the White Sea is called »pokrut», and usually takes the following form: the master takes Y, of the catch, and V3 is divided among the four members of the crew, each one of them thus receiving V12 of the catch. This share of the takings is estimated to average 60—80 roubles, but is sometimes as little as 35—40 roubles. The mate receives half a share — 724 of the total catch — in addition, and a money wage, »svershonok», the amount of which, usually about 50 roubles, depends on his skill. Some years ago, when spirits were not yet prohibited in Murman, and the government did not assist fishermen who wanted to get on, the pokrut organi- sation was general. The agreements were signed early in the winter. The employer, who was in most cases some trader, then paid a proportion of the wages in kind (clothing, tea, flour, etc.) in advance. As soon as the men reached IMurman in the spring, the rest of the wage went speedily in gin and Norwe- gian rum, which was obtainable in abundance at all the fishing places. The result v/as that the fishermen had to have recourse to credit even before they went home. The burden of debt grew from j'ear to year; the dependence on the creditors almost amounted to slaver3^ ^ The vessel used for the Murman fishery is most usually an open capacious boat, »shniaka», with two pairs of oars and a rectangular sail, of about 3,000 —5,000 kilogrammes (about 3 — 5 tons) burden. Norwegian j^awls are used to a lesser extent, and only the wealthier people own expensive, decked ves- sels. There were in 1913 altogether 1,116 vessels inlVIurman, 80 "/^ of them being open »shniakas» and yawls. There were ver}- few motor boats, such as are now in general use in Norway. The most usual kind of fishing tackle is a sort of long-line, »jarus>>. It is composed of a certain number (at most 40) of strong lines, 180 fathoms long and as thick as a pencil, on which hooks are fastened by short snoods. The bait is capelin, launce, or failing these worms, which are fixed to the hooks, and the »j arus» is then let down into the sea and examined every six hours. The number of the crew depends on the vessel. There are usually 3 in the yawls, 4 in the »shniakas>> and 5 in the decked vessels. The crew of a »shniaka» is commanded by the mate, »korshtcliik». He chooses the fishing places and arranges the work. The >>oarsman», >>veselshtchik>>, rows in the bows, with the first pair of oars, while the other oars are plied, as the rest 38 ./. ('. Grand, F'isliing. of the work aHows, by the man who draws the line, »tiaglets, and the one who puts on the bait, »nazhivlialshtchik». One of the men in the boat is often replaced by two women or half-grown boys, »polovinki». Children also take part in the work, disentangling and arranging the fishing tackle for a small sum. If it is possible to sail on the way back from the fishing grounds, the catch is cleaned on the way. The guts are thrown into the sea, the livers, used for making cod liver oil, are kept separate, as also are the tongues, which are salted, and the heads. The fish is either delivered straight to the purchaser's sliip in the harbour, weighed there, and salted down in the hold, or delivered to store-houses on the shore, and salted there in barrels. Longer and more remunerative trips can be made with the decked ves- sels, and it therefore pays best in the long run to keep them, in spite of their higher price. It has been calculated that during the best fishing time in the summer (July 8th— August 3rd), each member of a crew earns on an average the following sum; on yawls, VIO marks, on shniakas 270, and on decked ves- sels 675 marks. The Finns and Norwegians often prefer angling to long-line fishing, espe- cialh' when fish are very plentiful. This is done without am' bait- fish, as a piece of cod entrails or of white cloth serves as bait. The long-line takes not only the usual cod, but also haddock, various kinds of flounder, and so on, while angling catches almost exclusiveh^ cod and had- dock. Coalfish are caught with a square net, which is carefull}- let down un- dor the shoal of fish (in shallow water), and then raised to the surface with its spoil. This work requires four boat's crews, one for each corner of the net. Salmon and also dog fish are caught in Murman, beside the fish abo\'e mentioned. The latter are caught on strong hooks fastened to an iron chain and baited with a piece of seal blubber. Herring are also caught. Between the years 1898 and 1914 the lowest number of persons fishing in Murman in one year was 3,293 (in 1912), and the highest number was 4,261 (in 1900). The smallest total catch during this period was 3,223,800 kilogram- mes, — in 1904, and the largest was 8,699,800 kilogrammes, — in 1913. In addition to this, 450,000 — 850,000 kilogrammes of cod liver oil were prepared annualh'. The following quantities of different fish and fish-products were ex- ported from Murman to Archangel in the year 1913; salt cod, 2,858,680 kg., dried cod 6,650 kg., cod's hfeads 101,710 kg., cod liver oil, 160,130 kg., salt coalfish 76,800 kg., haddock, 818,780 kg., halibut, 29,430 kg., flounders 17,600 kg., and herring, 8,530 kg. If the fishing on the Arctic coast were properly organised, it would cer- FlvXXIA 42 Xo. 3. 3'.) tainly produce incomparably more. The present proceeds are not even sufficient for the needs of the district, for imi)ortation from Norway is growing steadily. The Murman fishery is at present ob\'iously on the decline. T'or example, during the last decade 3 million kilogranmies of coalfish were caught annually on the Russian side of the Varanger Fjord and at Vaida-Guba. At present nearly all come from Norway. Neither is anj^- attention paid to the catching of a fish so valuable and so common in West Murman as the halibut. More care and labour was formerh^ devoted to salting the fish. The quality of the fish-produce has also declined in course of time. In the time of Peter the Great there were specially introduced Dutch instructors working in Murman at the fish salting. Salmon is the principal fish on the Ter Coast, and in Kandalaks herring and navaga as well. The salmon is caught b}" various different kinds of tackle. On the coast and at the river mouths nets are most used, and traps higher up the rivers. The fishing season begins in the beginning of June and lasts till the middle of November, with an interval of a couple of weeks in August on the eastern part of the Ter Coast. The summer salmon are smaller, averaging 1 ^/o—2 kg., and seldom exceeding 3 kg. The autumn fish are larger and more valuable, their weight reaching 6—7 kg. The annual catch of salmon in Kola I^apmark averages 325,000 kg. In the year 1914 366,000 kg. were taken, 297,300 kg. of this on the Ter and Kan- dalaks Coasts (not including the villages of Kandalaks and Kolvitsa which belong to the province of Kem). Special attention has recently been devoted to the salting and conservation of the salmon. Some of the Murman fishers send their catches to be smoked in Norway, and a Petersburg firm has established modern cold-storage cellars at Tuloma. It may be mentioned that the abundance of salmon in Kola Lapmark has not escaped the attention of the English sportsmen. There are few summers when some of these do not visit the rapids in Tuloma and some other rivers to angle for salmon. The herring or »seld» fishery is concentrated on the west coast of the White Sea and the inner waters of the Gulf of Kandalaks. Herring are not caught east of Kuzomen. Four different fishing seasons are distinguished. The first of these is in May, when the herring spawn. The coastal waters are then still frozen, and the nets are let down under the ice. The fish then caught, the »under-ice fish», are comparatively small and thin. Two seasons are in the summer, the »after-ice» and Ivan's season, and the fourth season is in the autumn. »Ivan's fish» are the largest, weighing 150—200 grammes, but the autumn fish are the fattest. There are no reliable statistics of the quantity of herring caught. In the year 1909 32,529 casks of herring were salted in Kandalaks, 40 /. G. Grand. vSealing and Wlialiny. 3,500 casks in Kolvitsa, and 500 in Porja-guba. A cask is estimated to con- tain 8.2 — 10 kg. of fish, so that the whole amount, 41,029 casks, would come to between 336,200 and 410,000 kg. The navaga fishing on the Kola coast (by winter angling) is of less impor- tance. Foreigners have recently begun to irawl on the Arctic coast off Kola, with specially constructed steam trawlers. They trawl chiefly for flounders, great quantities of which are sometimes collected on sand or clay bottoms out at sea, at a depth of 70—140 metres. Tliis fishery is beginning to be cariied on more and more indiscriminatel}-, to the iirjury of the coast population. The limit of the territorial waters in Russian Lapmark has not yet been inter- nationally settled, (an old conception was that the width of the territorial waters was the extent of a cannon's range), neither is the coast-guard service properly organised. The trawlers come chiefly from England, and partly also from Germany, Norway and Sweden, and were first seen in the Murman and Kanin waters in 1904. They generally arrive in May, and first fish off the Ry- batchi Peninsula, but then move eastwards, following the mo^•ents of the cod, and in the end of September and in October work the Kanin and Kolguev districts. The trawlers can coal for 25—30 da^'s. The foreigners spend at most half that time on the journeys, so that they can devote at least 10—15 days to fishing. The English boats make five or six trips during the fishing season. Each trip brings in 35—50 tons of fish, worth 7,000—27,000 marks in money. The Russians in Archangel have also begun to trawl in the last few years, but so far with little success. The wland fishery is a very important factor in the Lappish economy. The salmon fishing has already been spoken of in connection mth the coast fishing. More than half the salmon fishing in Kola lyapmark is carried on by the Lapps. As far as is known, the Tuloma river is the most productive of the waters in the territory, furnishing ati average of 6,500 kg. annually for commerce. There is no reliable information about the rest of the fishery, as the statistical fig- ures only deal with a small proportion of the catch, that which comes into com- merce. It must be remembered that the Lapps live chiefly on the cheaper fish from the inland waters. 3. Sealing and Whaling. Sealing is carried on as well as fishing on the coast of Kola Lapmark, and other sea mammals are killed occasionally also. The Murman sealing has recentlv increased while the fishing decreased. This is due to the greater FENNIA 42 No. 3. 41 abundance of seal, wlaich also, — at least so suppose several experts — has caused the fish to migrate elsewhere. Seal hunting proper (chiefly for Greenland seal) began in West Muruian in the last decade of the nineteenth century. One year the first seals appeared off the coast of the Rybatchi Peninsula at the end of March. In the following years they came earlier and in ever increasing numbers, so that before long the sealing season began as early as the beginning of February, and lasted until the end of May. Observations made on the Rybatchi Peninsula show that these seal come from the north, and tlie}^ probably come from Spitzbergen. They are fatter and clumsier than those wliich come from the Wliite Sea, which have been hunted in East Murman from time immemorial. The blubber of the Spitzbergen seal sometimes comes to as much as over 8o kg., while that of the East Murman seal only reaches 35—40 kg. The seal are generally caught in nets on the Murman Coast, and less often shot. The nets are 7 — n metres wide and 20—22 metres long, and are set at right angles to the shore at a depth of 15 — 25 metres. Three or four nets are often joined together in a continuous wall. The seal catch in them very easilj' and cannot get loose. The seal are hunted on the ice, generally in inlets where stones are uncovered at low tide. When the tide rises, holes in the ice open round these stones, and the seal come up through them on to the ice. It often -happens that they do not get back into the water before the tide falls again and the stones fill the holes. On the east coast of Kola, where there is little fish, sealing has been an im- portant occupation from of old. In the beginning of March large herds of seal are to be seen on the ice floes which break off from the White Sea, and drift past that coast towards the Arctic Ocean. The 3'oungest animals are seen first, then the half grown, and finally the full grown seal. The best sealing area is between Sviatoinos and the Kanin and Orlov capes. The seal catchers pass along the edge of the ice in speciall}- constructed ships or in steamboats. When the look-out at the masthead sees a group of seal on an ice floe, the men go to meet' them in several vessels from different directions, so as to cut off their retreat. The seal are either shot or killed bj- a blow on the head with a club. The skin and the laj^er of blubber are cut off and conveyed to the vessels. It is generally Greenland seal which are thus taken, less often ringed seal or bearded and hooded seal. The hunters may also occasionally obtain a walrus or a polar bear. The seal-shooting season in the White Sea begins as early as December, and lasts till the middle of May. It is chiefly carried on out at sea on the east coast, and therefore beyond the limits of the territory here in question. 42 J- (^'- Grand, Hviiiting. In the year 1908, 2,216 persons in the province of Alexandrovsk were engaged in sealing. They took 14,000 seal wliich were then worth 136,000 marks. Other sea mammals were also caught to a value of 54,000 marks. W/ialiug in the parts of the Arctic Ocean which wash the coasts of Kola Lapmark is a thing of the past, as the more valuable kinds of whale have migrated elsewhere. Only 40 years ago this occupation was still flourishing. There were then 35 Russian and Norwegian whaling crews with special whaling ships at work between the North Cape and S\iatoinos. vSpecial fac- tories for working whale products were founded at Jeretik in 1882 and in the next year at the Ara Fjord. The oil was sold b}' preference to England, while Hamburg took the whalebone, the guano made from the bones and remnants of flesh, and the glue made from the liquid wliich remained in the cauldrons when the oil was prepared. The factories were closed in 1890, as the large whales had disappeared. At the same time the Norwegian factories on ths Varanger Fjord, which numbered twenty, stopped working. The greater num- ber of them, like the factory at Ara, were removed to the west coast of Norway, to Iceland, or to the islands lying to the north of England. White whales are still occasionally caught in the White Sea, especially off Umba. 4. Hunting. Hunting is only an occupation of the second rank, compared with the fish- ery and sealing. It is chiefh' carried on in the forests of the interior. Accord- ing to the official statistics, which natural!}- give values considerably^ lower than those of the actual quarry-, hunting is most profitable in the volosts of Kuzomen and Ponoi and in Kola Lapp volost, and least profitable on the Mur- man coast. 1,171 fur-bearing animals were killed in all in the district of Alexandrovsk in the year 1904 ; these included 399 marten, 210 fox, 100 Arctic fox, 26 wol- verine, 17 wolves and 14 bears. The number of hunters was 460. The value of the quarr}' was estimated at 16,125 marks, giving an average of 35 marks for each hunter. Four years later, in 1908, — if the statistics may be believed — the number of hunter^ had increased to 553, and the value of the quarry (then also chiefly martin and fox) was 40,000 marks. This gives an average earning for each hunter of 72 marks, or double as much as in 1904. Forest game (ptarmi- gan, hazel hen and black-game) to the value of 325 marks were brought to market in 1904, and in 1908 to the value of 2,700 marks. FKXXIA 42 No. 3. ' 43 5. Forestry. Forestry is still very undeveloped. Nevertheless, owing to the poverty of the forests and the great demand for building material and fuel in the cen- tres of population in the Arctic coastal districts, more attention has been paid to the forests than in many other parts of northern Russia, where they are still being absolutely devastated. The territory is divided into three forestry districts, — Petchenga, Kola and Kandalaks — and these in their turn are divided into eighteen demesnes or »Datcha». "Information obtained from prin- ted sources shows that at the beginning of tliis century there were annually sold by auction about 40,000 logs and about 5,000 cords of fir wood in the Kola district, and about 15,000 logs in the Kandalaks district. The forest resour- ces of the Petchenga district had at that time not been estimated, so timber selling only began later. In addition, the state supplied building material and fuel for the population from the state forests at a fixed price. The river Ttdonia is the most important water way for timber-floating in Kola Lapmark. The greater part of the building timber used on the Murman coast is brought down by it. Occasionalh' the logs are brought by sea from the regions south of the Province of Kem. The timber needed for building in the town of Alexandrovsk is brought by tliis means from as far off as Archangel. Fuel is obtainable to some extent in the inner reaches of several fjords, where the wood is hewn in the winter, and whence it is brought in the summer by boats to its destination. The Lapps are do not do forest work, for which either settlers living in the neighbourhood are employed, or men are brought from the province of Kem, from Finland or from the govermnent of Vologda. 6. Industry and Mining. There were in 1908 altogether 90 industrial cstahlishmcnis in the province of Alexandrovsk, namely 80 try works and conserving factories, two saw- mills (in Umba and near the town of Kola), and one chamois-leather factor3\ In the 3^ear quoted these factories employed 554 persons. The value of the produce of the try works amounted to 280,000 marks, that of the sawmills to 1,100,000 marks, and that of the chamois-leather factory to 27,000 marks. In addition to this the fishermen themselves boiled blubber to a value of 32,000 marks. Sawmills have also been worked at times at Muotka, on the shore of the Gulf of Ozerko, (from the 3'ear 1899), and at the Petchenga monas- • tery. There are now plans on foot for establishing a large sawmill near the 44 ./. G. Grand, Subsidiary occupaticMJs. innermost waters of the Jar Fjord, not far from Boris-Gleb, and for construc- ting a railway in connection with it to the nearest harbour which is open all the year round, on the Norwegian side of the frontier at the Jar Fjord. The Petchenga monaster}- has a small brickyard for its own use. Among the different branches of handicraft and home industry,' the boat building is worth mentioning. There are several .skilled boat-builders in the F'innisli .settlements on the Pasvik river and in West Murman. Decked ves- sels are built in some places, for example at L^aatsi and Uura. There is up to now no mining 'to speak of in Kola Lapmark. It is true that gold has been found in the territory (on some islands in the Gulf of Kandalaks and in the Ponoi valley, and possibly also elsewhere); silver (at places in Mur- man, on islands in the Gulf of Kandalaks, and near Porja-guba and Umba), copper ore (on the islands and in West Murman), lead ore (in W'est Murman, Kandalaks, Porja-guba, etc.), and zinc ore (on the islands in the Gulf of Kan- dalaks). Even diamonds have been found, though unfortunately of micros- copic size, in the Pasvik river. In most cases, however, there is insufficient information as to the value of the deposits. Blasting has up to now only been undertaken to some extent in Kandalaks, and in West Murman in the Dolgaya and Bazarnaya Fjords. In the former place work was in progress as early as the years 1737—41 and 1764, under the direction of experts brought from Saxony. Altogether 750 kg. of pure silver were obtained. Lead ore was blas- ted in Murman for some years towards the end of last century; — 131,000 kg. in 1890 and 8,180 kg. in 1893. The ore contained in the best cases 80 ''/q of lead. The work was suspended for lack of capital, but has been resumed dtuing the world war. These lead ores are the most promising ore deposits in Kola Lapmark, but nothing can at present be said about their real value, until the extent of the deposits has been fully im-estigated. 7. Subsidiary occupations. One of the most usual subsidiary occupations of the I^apps in the interior is )}iussel fishing in the rivers, especially with a view to finding pearls. These molluscs are said to be most abundant in the rivers where salmon are plen- tiful, so that salmon- and mussel-fishing are generally carried on in the same waters. The great majority of the nmssels, 97— 98°/o, are valueless, contain- ing no loose pearls, so that quite an inconsiderable collection of pearls means the destruction of a mass of nuissels. IVIost of the pearls found in Kola lyap- mark are of small value. Thus, in one collection of 108 pearls bought from Lapps, there were 26 quite valueless pearls, 35 light grey or brown, 15 light F1-:XXIA 42 No. 3. 45 blue, greenish or yellowish, 22 dull white, some with a tinge of grey, blue or 5''ellow, 8 gleaming white, one very fine rose-coloured, and one gleaming steel- coloured, almost black. The smallest were the size of pins heads, and the lar- gest as big as peas, most of them round in shape. The largest was valued at 400 marks in Petersburg, 295 marks was paid in Berlin for two of the gleaming white ones. In the year 1905 there were 154 mussel fishers at work in the sour- ces of the Varzuga, and they found pearls to a value of 5,300 marks. It is unknown how many there were pursuing this occupation in other parts of Kola Lapmark. One result of too zealous pearl fishing is that the ri\er mus- sels in Kola Lapmark are beginning to get less connnon. The collection of eider down in the coastal regions could, if properh- orga- nised, become more profitable. At present this work is a source of income quite unknown to the population. The eggs are collected, and the birds killed, in spite of the fact that the eider duck is protected 'by law. The income thus derived is only a fraction of what the down could produce, not to speak of the fact that tliis treatment is driving the birds in question awa)^ from the Kola coasts on to Norwegian territory, where they are in every way protec- ted. It would certainly be worth wliile to fish for the edible blue nmssel which lives in the Arctic Ocean, and is also called the »Kola oyster» [Mytilus edulis), and especially for the ten-footed, somewhat lobster-like crayfish {Pandalus borealis) which occi^rs in large immbers. This latter is comparativeh' large and verj^ appetising; it is also useful as bait. It lives so deep down, however, that special tackle would be necessary for catching it. — Confirmation is needed for the statement to be found in print that the sponges which live in the gulfs on the Murman coast can easily bear comparision with the world-fam- ous Greek sponges. Among the vegetable products which are useful for food the berries and funguses must be mentioned. All kinds of berries common in northern Fin- land, — cowberries, blueberries, bogberries, cloudberries, crowberries — are abundant in Kola Lapmark. They often grow particularly large and full of flavour. The excellent cloudberries of the Hen Islands are specially famous, and it is said that they were in former times even sent to Moscow for the im- perial court. The occupations of the unsettled population include timber-hewing, which has already been mentioned, transport of goods and timber-floating. Posting by boat or by land is specially necessary in the valley of the Pasvik and on the stretch between K a ndalaks and Kola. 270 persons were engaged in it in the 5'ear 1908. The timber floating^— chiefly in the Tuloma area — only emploj-ed 46 J- G. Grand, Trade. 30 persons. ]\Ien only go to work in Norway" from the western parts of Murman. They mostly go to \'ard6, where each year from March to the end of July the loading of the Russian fish- merchants' sliips is in progress. During recent years many have earned their living in the construction of the Murman rail- way. One special source of income for settlers or Lapps on or near the coast is the care of property left during the winter in Murman. Owing to the absence of forest, and the poverty and small numbers of the population, the fishers are obliged to bring with them building materials or tents, foodstuffs, and other property, which it is not worth while to convey to and fro each year, but on the other hand cannot be left unprotected for the winter. 8. Trade. The trade of Kola Lapmark chiefly consists in the export of fish and forest produce, and the import of foodstuffs — incluchng also fish — and manufac- tured goods. The ports of the territory- (including Kandalaks) export goods annually to the extent of 2,500 tons. The exports consist of fish, cod liver oil, svhale oil and furs as well as some eider down and feathers, and also wood produce (from Murman to Norway). The imports amount to about 7,500 tons. The chief imports are flour and grain, especially rye flour, building materials and petroleum. As to the commerce of Murman in particular, the wholesale trade there is entirely in the hands of factors. They buy up the produce on the spot, and send it, usually excepting the cod liver oil intended for other countries, to Archangel in vessels of their own or hired, and thence on to Petersburg. The larger factories are now in East Murman (]\Ialo-01enie, Teriberka, Gavrilovo, Triashtchino, Rynda and Harlovka). Every factory has its own wharf close to the harbour, and near b}' a more or less well-stocked shop, where the popula- tion buys cloth, foodstuffs, fishing tackle, etc., and even sweets, gold and sil- ver jewellery and toys, all certainl}' at comparatively high prices. In addition to the factors' general shops, there are in many places in the Murman villages specialised shops founded by settlers or tradesmen who have migrated to those places. Most summers there also come pedlars from the coasts of the White Sea, selling wooden goods, flour and grain, and buying fish produce. In the 3'ear 1899 there were in aVIurman 50 shops in all, owned by 40 per- sons, 28 shops being in East JMurman, and 22 in West IVIurman or on the Kola Fjord. Eight out of this number were general shops belonging to the factors:. FENNIA 42 Xo. 3. 47 21 were open for business all the year round, 29 only in the fishing season. There were in addition nine bakeries in East Murnian, which worked mainly during the summer. Business life was really, however, somewhat more li\'ely than these figures show, for during the sailing season the richer settlers generally provide them- selves with more goods than they need for their own use, so as to carry on trade in the winter by the side of their other occupations. The towns of Kola and Alexandrovsk are not included in the above. They take a leading position as centres of import among the Murman places of trade. Up to now, the very ancient town of Kola has remained more important than the new Alexandrovsk, partly owing to the new railway, notwithstanding the fact that the latter port is open all the winter. Itis still difficult to sa}' for cer- tain what will be the importance of the new town of Murmansk (Romanovna Murmane) , which has been founded at the terminus of the railway. Before the war, the whole Murman Coast except the town of Kola had the right of jree trade. The result is that goods imported from abroad are incom- parably cheaper there than in Archangel. The sale of spirits has been for- bidden in Murman since 1886. The illicit sale is however very prevalent. Nor- wegian rum and Russian vodka are still, as before the prohibition, decisive factors in the economy of the fishermen. The most important harbour places on the east and south coasts of the Kola Peninsula are Umba, Kandalaks and Kuzomen. The first-named is also a winter port. J. G. Grano. V. SOCIAL CONDITIONS. I. Housing. The Lapps have at least two dwellings for the different seasons, the »win- ter place», in the winter village or »market» in the interior, where all the fami- lies of the pogost assemble, with their reindeer herds, for Christmas, and the »summer place» on the sea coast, near the family's .fishing ground and the rein- deer's summer pasture, sometimes as much as 100 kilometres from the winter village. The Tuloma Lapps have in addition »spring» and »autumn places», some of them possessing no less than five different dwelling places, which are each used in turn. Most of the dwellings are now built of logs, especially in the »winter places». Turf huts or »gammas>> are still used to some extent as summer lodgings, or often placed beside the log hut and used only for cooking 48 T. Itkonen, 1 lousing. in. (Fig. i8). The huts are vSmall, built of round logs, and provided with a fireplace and one or two small windows. Along one wall there is sometimes a part with an earthen floor, instead of the usual wooden floor, for keeping the cooking pots on. Along two sides there is wide, low sleeping bench fixed to the wall. There is often a flat baking oven under the open sky outside. There are one to three outhouses raised on piles close by, and sometimes beside them a small larder on a high post, a so-called »nili». The winter places are gener- ally close!}'- built. As many as 40 — 50 dwelling huts can be found in them, and countless outhouses. Nowada3'S the houses are often built with two rooms, in one of wliich the baking oven is placed. The winter dwellings are better built than the others, but if necessary, for example, when pasturage and fuel fail, the whole village can be removed to another place, ,— it may be, every 20—40 years. In some places, e. g. on the Ter Coast (Lumbovsk, etc.), the summer villages are also closely built, and largely constructed of j)lanks from shipwrecks, for lack of other timber. Asphalte felt has also been seen used as roofing. The Finns' cottages are of hewn logs, and on the coast sometimes of turf with wooden supports. They generally contain a living room with a cooking range and an inner room warmed by a tiled or iron stove. There is often in the same building and under the same roof, but separated from the dwelling rooms b}^ an outer lobby, a shed and a byre. The better houses are built on a stone foundation. The roof is of planks, turf or asphalte, and during the win- ter the windows are double. The walls of turf cottages are lined inside with boards or pasteboard; there is generally no ceiling. A room of this kind is warm, but damp, especially when new. The fuel is wood, and on the coast also turf; on the Rj^batchi Peninsula turf only. The furniture includes a table, chairs, hassocks, a hanging clock, plants in pots, a shelf for milk and pots, a lamp and an extending bed. The bathhouse deserves special mention among the outhouses, and is in constant use. The Norwegians seldom use turf buildings, but construct their houses of planks 2 — 2V2 inches thick, and line them with pasteboard. The houses ge- nerally contain 2—3 rooms. Fixed cooking ranges are comparatively rare, iron stoves being generall}^ used. Chairs are used to sit on; only the poorest people have benches. The outhouses are apart from the dwelling houses, and there are no bath-houses. The Russians' and Carelians' buildings are constructed of round logs (Fig. 15), small timber being used in the eastern regions. The dwelling houses are divided into two rooms by plank walls, one room forming the kitchen and having a bake-oven which also warms the other room. Wood is used for fuel. Fig. 18. Log Huts of the Kamenski Lapps, on the Potioi River. Photo /. K, Inha. Fig. 20. Village of Venehjarvi, Vuokniemi. Province of Kem. Photo /. K. Inha. C':*^^.' Fig. 19s Kivakka Rapids in the Oulanka River, and Kivakkatunturi Fell. Photo /. A'. /»/ia. FIvXXIA 42 Xo. 3. 49 There is an attic, which sometimes contains a small room, with no stove, for the 3-ounger members of the family to sleep in, or for letting to fishermen. The whole dwelling is more poorl}- equipped than among the Finns and Nor- wegians. The byre is generally under the same roof as the dwelling house, the sheds, open and closed, may lie separateh-, and the bath-house always does so. 9 — io°/q of the inhabitants who are listed as settlers are without dwelling places, and 45— 50°/q of the unregistered inhabitants. With regard to the location of the dwellings, the Finns generally place their buildings at a con- siderable distance from each other. Thus, the 14 homesteads in Great ]\Iuotka lie within a radius of 20 versts, while 40 homesteads at Uura are witliin a ra- dius of only 6—7 versts. The Russians and Carelians build closer together (Fig. 15). The 44 homesteads at Teriberka are within a distance of one kilo- metre from each other. The Norwegians live closer together than the Finns, but not so close as the Russians. 2. Dress. Complete Lapp costume is onl}- worn b}- the lyUtherans of West Murman, the »filmans». The Greek Catholic Lapps (Fig. 13) have adopted Russian dress. They onh* retain as an inheritance from previous ages, the footgear, some-, times the felt shirt (»mekko»), and the winter outfit; — fox-fur cap with a cloth crown, reindeer mittens, gloves and »jaarat>> (a kind of fur boot). The most noticeable feature of the women's costume is the headdress (originally of Rus- sian model) which varies for unmarried women, wives and widows. The working dress of the Murman settlers is much the same all over the territory; thick felt trousers, a warm woollen blouse (called an >>icelander'>), underneath it a thin blouse and a shirt, long high-legged boots, and a hat or cap. In damp weather an oilskin coat and trousers are put on over the rest, and an oilskin hat, a sou-wester, on the head. On more solemn occasions what are called »town clothes» are worn. In the \^in:ter, the Lapps generally wear clothes of undressed fur, or at least fur boots with the hairy side out, which are tied round the ankles. The Russians on the east coast, like the Zirianians, wear inner and outer mittens (»malitsa» and »sovik») and boots (»kamas" and »pim») of fur. The dress of the Finnish and Lapp women consists of a che- mise, jacket, skirt, kerchief, woollen stockings, and undressed fur boots or soled boots. The Russian women wear a different sort of bodice and a sarafan. 50 7'. Itkoiioi. Conditions of Health. 3. Food. In the winter the Lapps eat reindeer meat and salt or dried tish, and in the siininier fresh fish, berries and to some extent sheep's milk. All the year round they use flour, a little grain, tea and sugar. Before the war vodka was gener- alh' consumed. The chief meal, with cooked food, is left till late in the evening or midnight. During the day they eat dry food and drink large quantities of tea. The chief foods of the Finns and Norwegians are fish and bread; they also have beef and mutton, milk, grain, sea-birds and their eggs, potatoes and tur- nips. Coffee is used as a stimulant. They have three meals a day. The most usual intoxicant is Norwegian rum, but vodka is also used. Tobacco smoking is general. TJie Carcliaiis and Russians have less \-aried food, as their cattle afford only insignificant quantities of meat and milk. In place of butter they use the fat of cod. Their beverage is tea, and their luxuries are vodka and nrahorka to- bacco rolled in paper. There are fairly convenient arrangements for supplying the inhabitants of Murman with bread. The .state has a flour depot in Alexandrowsk, various committees have depots in Teriberka, Petchenga, and Salmajarvi, and there are also separate cooperative funds, one for the Kola Lapp volost, and others for the villages of Petchenga, Bumansfjord (Pumanki) and Uura. In Lap- mark proper or in the interior, there are neither flour depots nor cooperative funds; the Lapps get their flour from Kola, Petchenga, and sometimes Teri- berka. There are stores of salt for »pomores» and settlers in Alexandrovsk (the main store), Gavrilovo, Rynda and Harlovka. 4. Conditions of Health. The severe climate, the monotonous food, especially in the winter, and to some extent also unsatisfactory housing conditions, make sickness frequent in Murman. The commonest diseases are scurvy, affections of the respiratory organs, tuberculosis, influenza, gastric affections and rheumatism. 1m )r a long time the state neglected the care of health, and disease worked havoc, especially during the fishing months, when large numbers of unsettled people collected in the ports, and were housed in crowded and dirt-, dwellings. There is now a district doctor living in the province of Alexandrovsk, who has under him four »barber-surgeons» (in Alexandrovsk, Kola, Petchenga and Teriberka). Alexandrov.sk has a hospital of its own, and in the most impor- FENNIA 42 No. 3. 51 tant of the Murman settlements, Teriberka, Gavrilovo and Rynda, there are Red Cross hospitals, to which doctors and sisters of mercy are sent every sum- mer from Archangel. There are \-er}' primitive arrangements on the Murman Coast for assistance at confinements, for there is only one midwife, who lives in Alexandrovsk. Under these circumstances it is not surprising that mothers often apply to the barber-surgeons. They are even employed by the peasant women, whose modesty in this particular point is very great. The health conditions of a large part of Kola Lapmark are anything but satisfactory. It is significant that more than half the mortalit}- takes place among children under five years. T. Itkonen. 5. Religion and Education. The greater number of the inhabitants of Kola Lapmark — the Russians, the Carelians and the majority of the Lapps — count themselves members of the Greek Catholic Church. Their spiritual needs have not received adequate care. Churches and chapels are certainly to be found in all the larger places, and even in small villages, (there are 34 altogether), but the number of parishes is too small (16), and the ill-paid priests are not equal to their duties. Most of these clerics are ignorant and incapable, and many of them have actually been sent to Lapmark as a punishment for more or less serious misdemeanours. The towns are naturally better off. The centre of the spiritual life of the terri- tory is St. Trifon's ancient monastery at Petchenga, famous in the history of the conversion of the Lapps. It is the Mecca of the region, pilgrims congregate there from distant places, and its brothers have had a decisive word to say in many a mundane question. The Finnish Lutheran cure of souls was long comparativeh' ill arranged. It is true that Finnish Pastors occasionally visited Murman, but these visits were all too short to leave perceptible traces behind them. Now that a Finnish pas- tor has settled down permanently in Alexandrov.sk, conditions have natur- ally improved. The congregation is, however, scattered over 28 settlements, so that one man is not able to cope with the work. According to infor- mation furnished by the Murman pastor, the Finnish congregation there consisted at the beginning of 1915 of 1,942 persons, (1,001 males and 941 fem- ales). 85 ^Iq of these were Finns, 9*^/0 Norwegians, 5^0 Lapps, and the remain- ing 1 ^Iq Germans and Letts. The only church is in LTura. There is also a large room in Alexandrovsk which is available for services. Lentil .the last ten vears Murman was entirelv without even the most p^^- 52 C. Sana, The Claim of Finland to a Share in the Arctic Coast. nientary educational establishments, except for. a sort of monastery-school at Petchenga. Few of the Greek Catholics could read or write, rather more of the Lutherans. A few church schools were at work instructing the Lapps, namely* one in the pogost of Kildin (where it soon came to an end), in »Suoni- kylii, Lovozersk, Pasvik, and Nuortijiirvi. Several of these were onl}- tempo- rary. In 1907 the ]\Iinistry of Popular Instruction opened four village schools in Murman, namely in Petchenga (Parkkina), Uura, Bumansfjord and Teri- berka. The village school in Nuortijiirvi was opened in 1 909 when the church school was removed thence to the pogost of Kildin. In 1910 village schools were opened in Tsypnavolok and Salmijarvi. Four of the Murman schools have boarding houses for pupils who live at a distance. In the 3-ear 1909—10 the four oldest village schools contained 124 pupils, ahd four church schools (Kil- din, Suonikyla, Lovozersk and Pasvik) had 67 pupils. There was further a town school in Kola with a one j-ear's course, and one in Alexandrovsk with a three years' course. The pupils in these in the same year numbered 98. There were in Murman and the interior four libraries with reading rooms. The number of books borrowed during the year 1909 was 11,200, borrowed by 210 persons. Since 1910 there have also been two am6z//rtton'/i6rrtrz>s at work for the ]\Iurman settlers; the Finns have one similar librar}-. '"^ •; J. G. Grano and T. Itkonen. VI. THE CLAIM OF FINLAND TO A SHARE IN THE ARCTIC COAST. As early as the ^liddle Ages both Sweden and its neighbours Norway and Russia made claims to wide stretches of the Arctic coast. A common terri- tory therefore came into being, in which tribute was levied bj' each of the ■ three states. In more recent times efforts were made to get the frontiers be- tween the different states more definitelj- fixed. Thus the frontier between Russia and Sweden was drawn by the peace made at Tayssina in 1595, and cut through the forest in the following year. This frontier was to run from li- vaara in the present parish of Kuusamo, »straight across Lake Enare», between the Varanger and Nejden Fjords, »right up to the Northern Ocean» (the Arc- tic). It was thus expressly recognised that the Arctic coast west of that fron- tier belonged to Sweden. Subsequent frontier agreements between Sweden and Russia onh' said quite shortly that the frontier in the extreme north was FKXNIA 42 Xo. 3. 53 to be unchanged, i^se^•e^theless Sweden soon lost to another power the terri- tory which had been recognised to belong to it by the peace of Tiiyssina. Isor- vva}^ also had ancient claims on the Arctic coast, and this was one of the causes which led to the war between Sweden and Denmark— Norway in 161 1. The war ended badly for Sweden, and the Peace of Kniirod in 1613 decided that the Arctic coast between the Titis Fjord and the Var anger Fjord should belong to Norwa}-. Thus both the Norwegian and the Russian frontiers ended at about the same point on the Arctic coast, and the Swedish rights to the territory on the said coast remained obscm-e. Nevertheless there was still an extensive territory south of the coast which was common to the three states, and Sweden continued to maintain that the southernmost portion of the shore of the Varanger Fjord was also its property. Sweden did not abandon its claims to southern Varanger until the frontier between Sweden and Norway was more accurateh' demarcated b}- the frontier treaty made at Stromstad on October 2nd, 1751. The frontier between the two countries was marked out as far as the Kolmisoaivi fell, but no further, as Russia also had a share in the territory lying east of that fell. This common territory was generally called by the Norwegian name, the »Faellesdistrikt». Its frontiers were somewhat indefinite. According to contemporar}- maps it stretched from the Bugo Fjord and Kolmisoaivi to Carls Gammen (Aidenjarga) and Muotkavaara, south of the Rybatchi Peninsula, as shown b}- the map appended. It does not seem to be clear whether the Faellesdistrikt was common to Russia and Norway alone, or whether Sweden also had territorial rights there. Although Sweden's territorial rights of possession to the Arctic coast were thus obscure, that state had instead generally recognised and unquestionable economic rights in the far north from ver^- ancient times. The inhabitants of Swedish Lapmark had fishing and sealing rights in the Arctic Ocean, and the right to feed their reindeer during the summer on Norwegian territory', just as the Norwegian Lapps had the right to drive their reindeer herds on to the vSwedish side during the winter. This arrangement was expressly confirmed by the agreement made at Stromstad in 1751, which declared that the Swedish and Norwegian Lapps should be allowed to migrate unhindered from one coun- try- to the other, to use the interior and the coast, and to carry on fishing and sealing. These rights were energetically exercised by the Swedish subjects. The Faellesdistrikt and its coast also were open to the Swedish Lapps. When Finland was separated from Sweden in 1809 and ututed with the Russian Empire, the rights which Sweden had previously possessed on the Arctic Coast were transferred to the new Finnish state. During the first few 54 (/. Sana. Tlit- Claim of Finlaiul to a Share in the Arctic Coast. years after the conclusion of peace, I'innish su])jects were allowed to avail themselves of all the rights mentioned in the vStromstad agreement. The rights and advantages of Finland were, however, completely ignored in the agreement made on May 14th, 1826, between the Tsar of Russia and the King of Sweden and Nor-way, concerning the division of the I'aellesdistrikt. No representative of Finland took part in the negotiations, and the agreement made was very disadvantageous to this coimtry. In the first place, the agree- ment does not suggest that there was even any discussion of Finland's possible rights to territory in the F'aellesdistrikt, but the area was simply divided be- tween Norway and Russia. The frontier between Norway and F'inland from Kolmisoaiva further to the south-east was demarcated at the same time, and in doing this the mistake was made of not drawing the frontier to a Muotka- vaara situated south of the Rybatchi Peninsula, as should in justice have been done, but it was drawn to another Muotkavaara lying further to the west, whence the frontier runs up to the present day. The frontier between Norway and Russia began at Muotkavaara, where that between Norway and Finland ended. It was decided that it should run thence to the Patsjoki, and along that river to the Greek Catholic church of Boris Gleb, which is on the left bank of the ri\'er. The church and surrounding territory should belong to Russia. Hereupon the frontier made a sharp bend to the east, to the sources of the Jakobs ri\-er and thence was drawn along that river to the Arctic Ocean. In addition to the fact that Finland received no share in the Faellesdistrict, this agreement depri^•ed its inhabitants of all the eco- nomic rights they had possessed since primeval times, and which had been confirmed by the treaty of vStromstad. Thus, the frontier agreement of 1826 expressly forbade the inhabitants of the one state to let their reindeer herds feed on the other side of the frontier, and it was decided that the fishing rights should remain as they had been for a period of six years only, and then cease. Russians have asserted that this for Finland very disadvantageous treat}' was brought about by the Norwegians bribing the Russian envoy at the nego- tiations. This assertion has certainly not been established by evidence, but it is maintained by several writers. As soon as the treaty came into force, the Norwegian authorities began to put difficulties in the way of Finnish subjects carrying on fishery and sealing as they had done before in the \'aranger Fjord. At the same time, however, the Norwegian Lapps repeatedly drove their reindeer herds on to the Fin- nish side, making use of the right to feed their reindeer there which had been recognised by the treaty of vStromstad. FKXNIA 42 Xo. 3. 55 l-'or this reason the governor of the province of Uleaborg was, during the next few years, constantly obhged to send complaints to the senate, reporting on the Norwegians' enmity to the Finns on Norwegian territory, and their encroachments on the Finnish side of the frontier. Diplomatic negotiations between Norwa}- and Russia were opened several times in order to clear up these disputes, but they never led to any result, as the Norwegians' interpre- tation of the treaty of vStromstad was that they themselves continued to enjoy all its ad\-antages, while for the Finns only the obligations remained. In the coiuse of the negotiations, a question was raised of "the exchange of the parish of Enontekis for some Norwegian territory in southern V^aranger, but the pro- posal never led to any action. As the negotiations led to no understanding, and as the inhabitants of northernmost Finland were appreciabh' injured by the Norwegian reindeer herds which came o\-er the frontier. Tsar Nicholas I. ordained that the frontier between Norway and Finland should be closed to Norwegian reindeer herds from vSeptember 15th, 1852. The Finns were at the same time forbidden to seek reindeer feeding grounds, or to fish or hunt, in Norway. In order to compensate the inhabitants of Finnish Lapmark, at least to some extent, for the loss of income caused by the closing of the frontier, the Secretary of vState announced on June 30th, 1854, that the Tsar had conferred on the Lapps the right of fishing and sealing in the parts of the Archangel government on the Arctic coast situated nearest to the Norwegian frontier, except in places where Russian subjects carried on fisher}-. In order to dis- cover how far it might be worth while for the distant Finnish Fapps to make such expeditions to Russian waters, the governor was instructed to equip two boat's crews at the national expense, to fish for one or two summers on the coast of the Arctic Ocean. A trial fishery arranged by the governor of the province of Uleaborg in 1858 showed that there were no greater difficulties in the way of fishing east of the Jakobs river than in Norway, and that the }'ield was equally abun- dant; owing to the long distance, however, the Finnish subjects could not carry their wares home. The governor proposed therefore, in a comnuinica- tion dated June 18th, 1861, that two fishing stations should be established on the Arctic coast, east of the Jakobs river, and that the whole of the uninhab- ited coast stretching from the Jakobs river to the other side of the Falk Fjord, a strip of the interior about 30 versts wide, the Hen Islands, and as far as possible also the west coast of the Rybatchi Peninsula, should be united to 50 C. Satva, The Claim of Pinkind to a Share in the Arctic Coast. these fishing stations and possessed by them free of taxation and independ- enth' of the Russian authorities. The senate ga\e this proposal its support on March 17th, 1862. The Tsar asked the opinion of the Russian ministers of Finance and National Demesnes, who had no objection to the proposal as such, but were opposed to granting exemption from taxation, and considered it essential that Russian law should run in the territofy. The Russian and Finnish authorities exchanged commu- nications on the subject without coming to any agreement. Meanwhile another question had come up which was shortly to be closely connected with the above. The Russian authorities had proposed the separa- tion from Finland of the Systerbiick rifle factory and its area, and its incor- poration with the government of Petersburg. The Finnish senate, in deliver- ing its opinion on the proposal, suggested that if the area of the Systerback rifle factory were separated from Finland, Finland ought to be given in com- pensation the coastal territory on the Arctic ocean, on which it had already been suggested that fishing stations should be established. This view was supported by the Tsar, and on February 15th 1864, there was placed on the Finnish statute-book an imperial decree, wliich declared that the Systerback: rifle factory should be separated from Finland, but an- nounced at the same time that »compensation for the land in question will be made to Finland in the future, either the stretch of Arctic coast east of the Jakobs river and adjoining the Gulf of Stolbova the granting of which as a fishing place for the Finnish Lapps has alread}- been suggested, or also within the said (Petersburg) government*, after the grading and valuation of the available property' situafad near the Finnish frontier. The promise in this imperial decree, however, remained unfulfilled. This was clearly due to the negative attitude adopted b}' the ^Ministries of Finance and of National Demesnes in the question of the fishing stations. Under these circumstances, no change took place in the condition of the fishers, which remained still as wretched as before. Neither was it much assisted when, in 1868, an imperial decree granted special advantages to settlers who migrated to the Murman Coast. The distressed condition of the inhabitants of northern Finland caused the governor of the province of Uleaborg to take the matter up again. On March 30th, 1880, he submitted to the senate a report on the conditions on the Arctic coa.st and among the Lapp fishermen who lived there. He sugges- ted at the same time that that portion of the Arctic coast which stretches from the mouth of the Jakobs river to the Petchenga Fjord, a strip of land ION. ^7** EAST 3/i ** , -5^ * Srojlf^ m O O FKNXIA 42 No. 3. 57 beliind the coast 20—30 versts wide, the Hen Islands, and the fisliing waters belonging to this area should be granted to Finland in perpetual possession. The governor also asked that a narrow strip of land east of the Norwegian frontier, two or three, versts wide, should be granted to Finland, where a road and feeding stations could be established for the reindeer herds on their wa\' to and from the Arctic Ocean. Innnish law should run in tins territory, and Finnish officials be appointed. All the inhabitants, both Finns and Russians, should be secured in their rights to the ownership and enjo^-nient of their homesteads and fishing places. Before the governor's proposal came before the senate, however, the ques- tion had been taken up by the Diet. At the Estates meeting of 1882, Rob. Castren, representative of Nj^karleby in the Burgher Estate, proposed a peti- tion to the government to ask it to take measures for the incorporation with Finland of the territory which had been promised in 1864. This petition was sent to the Committee of Ways and Means, which made a report thereon, dated May 29th, 1882. In this report the Committee recalls the fact that Finns had removed to the Norwegian coast in such great num- bers that it could be called a real migration. This was due to several circum- stances. It was easier for the Finns to obtain dwelling places on the Norwegian side, among their numerous compatriots already living there; the Norwegian legal system was similar to that of their own country; the religious faith was the same; it was easier to dispose of the fish taken, and the necessary capital was more easily obtainable, as there were Finns or Finnish speaking dealers in all the fishing stations; further, there was a doctor, a hospital, means of communication, and other advantages of civilisation. Under these circum- stances, the only way of checking the emigration to Norway was by giving Finnish subjects the same advantages on the east frontier as they obtained on the west. It was therefore essential that Finnish administration and the Finnish legal .system should run east of the Jakobs river, and there was also a reason for this, to be found in the imperial decree of 1864 which promised alternatively, a strip of land on the Arctic coast in compensation for the area of the Systerback rifle factory which had been incorporated in the Peters- burg government. In considering how large a piece of territory ought to be allotted, the Committee of Ways and Means took into special consideration the facts that the area ought to include, first a well sheltered harbour on which a town could be established, and secondly at least some forest land, from wliich the inhabitants could obtain the most indispensable fuel and building mater- ial, and finally that the tract of land ought to include the area where there FKNXIA 42 Xo. 3. 57 beliind the coast 20—30 versts wide, the Hen Islands, and the fishing waters beloaiging to this area should be granted to Finland in j^erpetual possession. The governor also asked that a narrow strip of land east of the Norwegian frontier, two or three, versts wide, should be granted to Finland, where a road and feecUng stations could be established for the reindeer herds on their way to and from the Arctic Ocean. Finnish law should run in tliis territorj', and Finnish officials be appointed. All the inhabitants, both F'inns and Russians, should be secured in their rights to the ownership and enjo3anent of their homesteads and fishing places. Before the governor's proposal came before the senate, however, the ques- tion had been taken up by the Diet. At the Estates meeting of 1882, Rob. Castren, representative of Nykarleby in the Burgher instate, proposed a peti- tion to the government to ask it to take measures for the incorporation with Finland of the territory which had been promised in 1864. This petition was sent to the Committee of Wa^'s and Means, which made a report thereon, dated May 29th, 1 882. In this report the Conmiittee recalls the fact that Finns had removed to the Norwegian coast in such great num- bers that it could be called a real migration. This was due to several circum- stances. It was easier for the Finns to obtain dwelling places on the Norwegian side, among their numerous compatriots already living there; the Norwegian legal system was similar to that of their own country; the religious faith was the same; it was easier to dispose of the fish taken, and the necessary capital was more easily obtainable, as there were Finns or Finnish speaking dealers in all the fishing stations; further, there was a doctor, a hospital, means of communication, and other advantages of civilisation. Under these circum- stances, the only waj^ of checking the emigration to Norway was by giving Finnish subjects the same advantages on the east frontier as they obtained on the west. It was therefore essential that Finnish administration and the Finnish legal system should run east of the Jakobs river, and there was also a reason for this, to be found in the imperial decree of 1864 wliich promised alternatively, a strip of land on the Arctic coast in compensation for the area of the Systerback rifle factory which had been incorporated in the Peters- burg government. In considering how large a piece of territory ought to be allotted, the Committee of Ways and Means took into special consideration the facts that the area ought to include, first a well sheltered harbour on which a town could be established, and secondly at least some forest land, from wliich the inhabitants could obtain the most indispensable fuel and building mater- ial, and finally that the tract of land ought to include the area where there 58 G. Sana, 'llu- Claim ot iMulaiid t(j a Sliare in the Arrtic Coast. already- was a Finnish popuhition. The first suital)le harbour c(>unting from tlie Norwegian frontier would be Norniansatt at the nioutli of the Petchenga Fjord, so that the area ought to extent at least as far as that harbour. There was suitable forest land both on the Patskoki and on the Peisen river, 100 — 120 kilometre.s inland from the sea coast. The proposed town would, however, not be able to supply itself with building material and fuel from the Pats- joki, as to do so the timber would have first to be brought down to the mouth of the turbulent Patsjoki, and then conveyed thence about 40 kilometres along the stornn- coast of the Arctic Ocean. It was therefore necessary that Fin- land should be granted a tract of land reaching as far as the Peisen river. And if it was taken into consideration that the parts of the coast where there was a Finnish population ought to be united to the area, it would also include the west side of the Rybatchi Peninsula, where the largest number of Finns were .settled. The Committee of \\'ays and Means propo.sed therefore, that the fron- t'er of the said territory should run from Konnustimturi 30 kilometres due east, to the little lake where the Patsjoki has its ea.stern source, run thence 40 kilometres south-east to the sources of the Pei.sen riAcr, and then along this river to the bottom of the Pei.sen Fjord, whence the frontier should be draM-n across the isthnuis of the Rybatchi Peninsula to Muotka and thence northwards to the sea east of "\'aida-Guba. The territory would thus be about 4 000 square kilometres, which at the first glance might seem ver}- large com- p'lred with the 12 square kilometres of the area of the Systerback rifle fac- tory- . If, however, it was taken into consideration that the territory consisted merel\- of rock, fell and bog, with an inconsiderable, thin forest in the south, so that the whole tract must be regarded as waste land, it could by no means be considered more valuable than the site of the Systerback arms factory. Xhe ])etition was approved by all the Estates, and the Tsar asked for the opinion of the vSenate thereon. On May 7th, 1883 the matter was discussed at a session of the senate. The official letter already mentioned, written by the governor of the province of Uleaborg in 1880, was taken into considera- tion at the same time. The senate, in giving their opinion, warmly supported the petition of the Estates. They declared that it was based on right and just reasoning, namely the facts that the inhabitants of the most northerly por- tion of the countr}- had lost their ancient rights to an important source of income, and that an advantageously situated piece of land in the south-east of the country had been separated from Finland and united to the Empire, together with the express promise of T.sar Alexander II. given in 1864, that F1-;NMA 42 Xo. 3. % 59 Finland should be compensated therefor by receivint; a tract of land, b\" which he chiefly meant the Arctic coast. The favourable opinion of the senate led, however, to no result, and the whole question was afterwards removed from the order of the da}-. Tliis does not, however, mean that tlie question of obtaining a port on the Arctic Ocean was entirel}' abandoned by the I'inns. Thus, at the beginning of the twen- tieth century, the then governor of the province of Uleaborg submitted to the senate a proposal that negotiations should be opened with a view to exchang- ing Enontekis for a Norwegian port, but the senate did not think it necessary- to take up the question. It may be mentioned that during the Red insurrection in the spring of 1918, an agreement was made between the Russian Soviet republic and the Finnish Bolsheviks concerning the surrender to Finland of an area on the Arc- tic coast against special compensation; the eastern frontier of this area was to run from Korvatunturi on the present frontier between Russia and Fin- land in a straight line to the sources of the Peisen river, thence along the wat- ershed east of the Peisen river to the Muotka Fjord, and across the Rybatchi Peninsula in a straight line to the coast of the Arctic Ocean at Subovska. This treaty naturally never became of any importance. At the peace of Dorpat, however, which was made between Finland and Russia and signed on October 14th 1920, Finland obtained a piece of territory of which the eastern frontier begins by dividing the Gulf of Vaida, on the north coast of the Rybatchi Peninsula, runs south- and south-eastwards from the innermost end of that gulf, divides the isthmus between the Bumans Fjord and the Gulf of Ozerko, divides the isthmus which joins the Sredni Penin- sula to the mainland, and then runs in a straight line to Korvatunturi, on the former frontier between Finland and Rus.sia. ■ GuNNAR Sarva. PART II. EAST CARELIA P. Eskola, J. G. Grand, Theodor Homen, K. F. Karjalainen, K. M. Levander, K. Linkola, Onni Lonnroth, J. A. Palmen, W. Ramsay, J. E. Rosberg, E. N. Setala, U. T. Sireiius and A. 0. Vaisanen. INTRODUCTION. Situation, Boundaries, Area, Administration, Judicial and Kcclesiastical Divisions. The boundaries of the East Carelian territory can be differently drawn, according as they are determined b}' ethnographical, geological, botanical or geographical considerations. In what follows, East Carelia is taken to comprise the provinces of Olonets, Petrosavodsk and Povenets in the govern- ment of Olonets, which form what is called Olonets Carelia (Aunuksen Karjala in Finnish), and the province of Keni in the government of Archangel, which forms what is called Kem, or White Sea Carelia (Vienan Karjala in Finnish). The boundaries of this territory do not wholly coincide on the east with the boundary of the Finnish natural history territory, for a part of the natural his- tory area of East Carelia lies to the east of the administrative boundar5^ The geological and geographical boundaries correspond fairh- well to the natural history one, while the boundary of the territory inhabited by Carelians lies at present further to the west. If therefore the boundary be drawn according to population, the eastern part of the natural history district lies east of the boundary. There is this advantage about adopting the administrative bound- ary, that then the official statistics, which are always arranged by provinces (ujezd) can be used. Ea.st CareHa lies to the east of Finnish Carelia and Ostrobothnia, stretches to the south and south east to Lake Ladoga, the river Svir (Syvari in Finnish) and Lake Onega (Aam'sjarvi in Finnish), and extends eastwards to the White Sea. Roughly speaking, it lies between 60<> and 67<' north latitude, and longti- tudes Sl^' to 350 east of Greenwich. Its northernmost point is on the frontier of the Kola Peninsula (Kaitatunturit, 670 13'), its southernmost on the coast of Lake Ladoga on the northern side of the mouth of the Svir (60^ 41')- its westernmost in Kem Carelia (29<^ 36' east of Greenwich) and its easternmost point on the boundar}^ between the provinces of Povenets and Podosh (36° 30'). Thus except for the regions round Kouda and Kandalaks, which are north 64 J . G. Grand, and J. E. Rvsherg, Iiitroduktion, of the Polar Circle, East Carelia belongs to the northern part of the temperate zone. Geologically it belongs to Fennoscandia. The northern frontier, that against the Kola Peninsula, has been described in the chapter about that territor3\ The greater part of the eastern frontier is formed by the sea. Carelia is wa.shed by the waves of the White Sea from Kandalaks to the mouth of the Kem river, and this strip of land is called the Carclian Coast. South of the Kem river the land is washed by the Gulf of Onega, and is here called the Poniorian Coast. Thence the eastern frontier runs over land, beginning between the \illages of Niuhtsha and Uneshemskoj^e on the Gulf of Onega, and running mostly over bog and waste to I^ake Onega, the shore of which it touches south of Rimskaya. The boundary then follows that lake and the river Svir to a point opposite the Jandeba, a tributary of the Svir, where it turns westwards, running thence in a curve across Lake Segeshskoye to the coast of Lake Ladoga. The western frontier runs from this point, the most southerly in East Carelia, along Lake Ladoga, to the frontier of the Finnish parish of Salmis. Thence it follows, right up to Kola Lapmark, the Finnish frontier as determined first at the Peace of Stolbova (1617) and after- wards finally confirmed in 1621 after a number of disputes. The area of East Carelia has been planimetrically calculated for the pre- sent work, and comes to 148,725 square kilometres; (57,425 square miles). 70,200 sq. km. of this territorj' (the province of Kem) belongs to the govern- ment of Archangel, and the remaining 78,525 sq. km. to the government of Olonets. But if the boundary against Kola is drawn along a line from Kan- dalaks to \^aatsimenoi\-a (see the introduction to the chapter on Kola Lapmark) the area of the territory comes to about 136,700 sq. km., which is more than a third of that of Finland. The system of justice and local government hitherto in force in East Care- lia, as in Russian Lapmark, is described below, in so far as it has been possible to organise it in these thinly populated regions where patriarchal conditions still prevail among the Carelians. Each government is administered b}' a governor who is at the head of a board of ci\-il ser\'ants. The government is divided into districts or provinces for the preservation of order and the administration of the laws, the chief police official in these provinces being the »ispravnik». The official next un- der him is called the »stanovoi», and the lower police officials are the »urjad- niks» and »strasniks». The zemstvo is a kind of organ of self government, and there is azemstvo for each government and each province. It is a meeting of representatives of FICNXIA 42 Xo. 3. 65 the nobility, the l)ur,L;liers and the peasants, whicli usually meets twice a year, and appoints special connuittees, »uprava», from amont; its members to (leal with current matters. Its duties include the provision of ])o]nilar instruction, the care of Iiealth, the construction of roads and building of churches, and so on. In actual fact, the zemst\os lune no ver}' threat importance, chiefly because the governors, as /epresentati\-es of the central government, ha\e tlie right to \-eto their decisions, and also because there are special »zemski natchahriki» (local superintendents) who are specially entrusted with the duty of supervising conuuunal self government. Kach ])ro\ince is divided into smaller areas »administered'> by these officials. There are also, .side beside with tlie zem.stvos, local organs of self government for the towns and the com- munes, which are also supervi.sed by a natchalnik and the governor. The town has its council, the so-called town ditiiia, with a burgomaster at its head, which also has the right to elect committees, uprava, from among its number. In the communes or »volosts», the chairman or »elder» of the connnune (starshi), together with a clerk (jusar), is responsible for the adniini.stration. It is his duty to ])ublish decrees of the central government, to maintain order, to collect .statistics, to issue passports, and to collect the rates and taxes. The communal council consists of tlie elder of the commune, the elders and vice elders of the villages in the commune, and the tax collector. The elder is appointed for a ])eriod of three years at a communal meeting (volo.stnoi sud) to which every ten homesteads elect one rejjresentative, and which is sununoned b>- tlie natchalnik when necessary. It is also the duty of the communal meeting to supervise the work of the communal officials, to determine the amount of the communal rates, to appoint guardians for orphans, etc. ^lore important decisions are in the hands of the provincial council. The organ of village self- government is the ;///;■ (meeting) in w^hich all the peasants have a vote, and proceedings are conducted by the elder of the village, the »starost». The village clerk keeps the minutes. If several ^•illages belong to one niir, the meetings are generally conducted by the elder of the commune. The most important duty of the mir is to administer the land belonging to the village, and from time to time to divide it amongst the peasants. The mir also has charge of other village affairs. It fixes the date of the haymaking, appoints the village elder, village herdsman and rate collector, decides whether new-comers shall be ad- mitted to membership of the village, and so on. I'or the administration of justice the provinces are divided into magis- trates' districts. The magistrates are appointed by the zemstvo of the province, and ha\e jurisdiction in civil cases where the sum involved does not exceed 5 t36 ,/. a. Ciiaiio (iiii/ /. A". liosbey^, Introdiu'tiou. 501) 1 ()ublc.-> (in sexeral Russian .i^ox-enuuents this sum was raised to 1 ,000 roubles by a decree of the year 1912), and in criminal cases where the le^al penalty involved is a fine not exceeding 300 roubles or one year's imprison- ment. In civil cases where the sum in\-olved is more than 30 roubles, and in criminal cases where a sentence of more than 15 roubles fine or three days imprisonment is inflicted, an appeal can be made^against the decision of the magistrate to the Diugistrates' conjereucc, which is held monthl\- and deals with cases of appeal against the decision of indi\idual magistrates. There are also so-called ordinary courts, viz. the subordinate »okruzhnoi sud» (district courts) and the »sudebnaya palata», courts of higher rank. The former cover several provinces, and the latter se\-eral go\-ernments. The district court pronounces final judgments, but in all ci\il cases an appeal can be made to the higher courts. If their decision is not acce])ted, a further api)eal for amend- ment of the verdict or retrial of the case can be made to the soiatc, which is the only court of cassation in the empire. Patriarchal administration of justice is very marked in Ivast Carelia, but apart from this, small offences and dis])utes are dealt with at \-illage meetings, and especially in the commuual courts (\-olo.stnoi sud). According to the decree of 1912, the.se consist of three ordinary members and two alternates (one of the ordinary members acting as chairman) who are chosen by special electors elected by the peasants. The election is ratified by the magistrates' conference. The conmiunal court has the jurisdiction in civil cases where the sum invol- ved does not exceed 100 roubles, and in criminal cases where the penalty does not exceed a fine of 100 roubles or 30 days imprisonment. Finally it iiiay be noted that the elder of the A-illage has the right, when necessary, to inflict a sentence of one rouble fine or two days imprisonment. If any one feels himself aggrieved by this, he can complain, within eight days, to the natchal- nik, who has the right, if he thinks fit, to sentence the elder to a fine of 5 roub- les or 10 days im])risonment. In actual ])ractice, it is exceedingly rare in the parts of the ccnintry with which we ha\-e to deal that any appeal is made against the verdicts of the vil- lage or comnmnal courts, which deal with practically all disputes and offen- ces. This is a j)leasing feature in the character and customs of the Carelians. The four provinces here de.scribed are dix'ided respectively, Olonets into nine, Petrosa\odsk into twelve, Po\enets into ten, and Kem into twenty-two comnmnes. From an ecclesiastical point of view, the province of Kem, like Russian Lapmark, belongs to the bisho])ric of Archangel. A suffragan bishop has his FENNIA 42 Xo. 3. 67 residence in the town of Keni. The provinces of Olonets, Petrosaxodsk and PoA'enets belong to the bishopric of Olonets. The bishops are advised by spiri- tnal consistories. The province of Olonets contains three deaneries and twenty- eight ecclesiastical parishes; Petrosavodsk has four deaneries and forty-nine parishes; Povenets, three deaneries and twenty-seven parishes; while Keni is divided into three deaneries and twenty-nine parishes. There are eight monasteries in Kast Carelia, the largest of which is Solo- vets, on an island of the same name in the White Sea, some congregations of Old Believers, an P^vangelist-Lutheran, a Roman Catholic ani" a Jewi.sh con- gregation. Russian missionaries work in East Carelia to convert those who do not belong to the Greek Catholic Church. The interests of the Greek Catho- lic church, and of russification, are also watched over by the »Orthodox Fra- ternity of Carelia», an organisation founded in the autumn of 1907, whose activit}' is notorious in Finland. J. G. Grano and J. K. Rosberg. I. PHYSICAL FEATURES. I. Surface and Altitudes. If the frontier between Kast Carelia and Kola I^apmark is drawn as descri- bed above, the high fells of Kaitatunturit (cp. p. 4) fall within East Carelia, but if the more natural line between Kandalaks and \^aatsimenoiva is taken as the frontier, this group of fells falls within the northern territory, to which, with its naked summits (tunturit) and its undulating ridges clad in subalpine birch, it geographically belongs. Generally speaking, the phy.sical features of East Carelia immediately recall the neighbouring parts of Finland, the whole scenery being of the same character on the two .sides of the frontier {^). East Carelia is on the whole a hilly country, rich in lakes and bogs like Finland, with fir forest on the (') The maps might ea.sily suggest that there is a certain difference in the physical features of the two countries; thus the lakes for example on the Finnish side are many armed, often .stretching for long distances in the prevailing orographical direction, while the lakes on the eastern side of the frontier appear on the maps as rovmded and irregular. In reality, the lakes, like all the physical features, are of the same character, the difference being due to the fact that the Rus.sian maps of East Carelia are unusually defective, and often highly diagrammatic. (38 ./. /:. h'osbff^ and P. Eskohi. Surfai't- and AUilinks. slopes, ])ine forest oil the moors, deeiduous forest on land whieli has formerly been burn-beaten, ore-bearinti lakes and windini,' rivers with many ra])ids. Near the frontier we find that the fjord-like drainage system of the I-'in- nish lake Paanajiirvi is reproduced in a number of valleys, that the Kuusamo lakes and the rid,i;es round them ha\e their counterj)art on the eastern side of the frontier, and that Tuulijar\i somewhat resembles rielisjiir\i in shape and features. A wide belt on the western side of the territory, 1> ing at an alti- tude of 150-200 metres above the sea, contains a number of large lake basins, which are di\ided from each other by moors, swamps or low, rocky ridges covered with moraine gravel. In these basins lie the lakes of Koutajarvi, Paiijarvi, and Tuo])paiarvi in the north; upper, middle and lower Kiiittijiirvi, Kivijiirvi and Nuokkajiirvi in the centre: and Lieksajiirxi, Otajarvi and the large vSeesjiirxi and I'ikujarvi in the south. In some places high summits, generall>- standing alone, rise above this belt of the large lakes. Thus, the region between the Tuntsajoki and the Ou- lankajoki is a good deal broken, with sununits that rise to a hundred metres above the general level of the ground. The highest are the fells of Ki\akka (about 650 metres, fig. 19) and Paiinuorunen (about 600 metres), ontheOulanka- joki. Between Ylii-Kuittijarvi (about 207 metres) and Kivijiirvi (about 230 metres) the land is high but not specially hilly, except for the region south of the Kuittijar\-i lakes. The so-called .Maanselkii, along which in i)laces the frontier between I'inland and Russia runs, is marked on the older maps as a real mountain chain. In actual fact it is a watershed, and can show cer- tain heights here and there (e. g. Miirkiiwaara, about 255 metres), but does not form any connected chain of mountains. From the basin of Lieksanjar\i southwards the ground sinks gradually, and large tracts of it are covered with swami)s. The belt of the great lakes and bogs is mostly unpoi)ulated, except on the shores of the lakes, where Aillages are found (fig. 20). The »vaaras» (heights) offer wide prospects o\-er endless solitudes; undulating sununits rise abo\-e forest and marsh, one behind another till all fades away into the blue dis- tance. The interior of White vSea Carelia, between the lake and the coa.^it belts, is a comjjaratively monotonous area, with very extensive moors, and generally only low sununits. The greatest heights are from 50— 100 metres in the valley of the Kern ri\-er and o\er 100 metres in the Tuoi)pajiir\i district. Towards the Olonets frontier the general altitude rises to 150 metres, and the sununits some 50 metres higher. North of the Keni river there .stretch exten.sive bogs, rivXXIA 42 NO. 3. 69 and still further to the north there are several lar<;e but shallow lakes (Kier- ettijiirvi, etc.) The valley of the Keni is broad and iui])osin.ii. 'J'here are many picturesque spots on its tributar>-, the Tchirkkakeniijoki, especially where it i)asses through rocky jiortals or carves its wa>- throu.gh ridj^^es. Manv long boulder-ridges intersect tlie territory, and form natural \va\s of conununica- tion between one area and another. The interior of the northern portion of the pr()\ince of ro\-enets forms the largest unpopulated area in liast Carelia; and has not its like anywhere in Finland except in Lapland. In the midst of the waste, however, there is the little village of Pieninkii, containing two farms, on the shores of a lake that abounds in fish. The forests in that solitude are almost untouched to this very day. One can go fifty kilometres without seeing the mark of an axe or any other sign of human life. Not till one approaches the villages on vSees- jiirvi. or the neighbourhood of Kepola, Himola and Rukajiirvi, does one .see here and there a pine which has been felled by some hunter in order to get at a squirrel which had stuck in the branches when he shot it. The ground is cum- bered with withered and fallen pines, and in man}' places they lie on a layer of rotten wood which is a foot deep. On the moors, howe\er, the soil has been destroyed by fore.st fires. In the we.stern part of this wilderness the rocks are of gneis granite, and the sunnnits rounded and comparativelv low. The level ground is here something more than 100 metres above the .sea. In the eastern part of the area, where the rocks are of quartzite and greenstone, the ground is \er3- much broken. The valleys are 150—200 metres above sea level. The rocky ridges are mostly sharply cut, with steep sides, and in places attain a height of 300 metres. Their general direction is from north-west to south-east. In some areas, as in the upper reaches of the ^'uolomajoki river, the ridges lie clo.se together and the \-alleys between them are very narrow. In other places the ridges are further apart, and the depressions between are filled by moors and bogs. The.se last are especially extensive in the southern parts of the territory. The regions round the big lakes of vSeesjiir^■i and Uikujarvi are more closely inhabited. The ground round the western side of vSeesjiirvi is much broken, with summits which sometimes rise to a height of 350 metres. The north-west shores of the lake lie especially high, and when seen from, the lake have an imposing effect, with their chequered »svedjelands» in different shades of green, according to the different stages of re-growth which the svedje- land has reached. The landscape between Seesjarvi (110 metres) and Uiku- jarvi (87 m.) is com})aratively flat (100—150 m.), as is also the area round the lake of Uikujar\i with its nifniy islands. The western part of the upper Uiku- 70 ,/. A", liosher^ and P. Eskola. Surface and Altitudes. iiir\i area, howe\er, contains a number of quartzite ridj^es which run j)arallel with each other in a north-we.sterl}- direction. These continue into White Sea Careha, as far as the region of vSuikujiirxi and I'skela. Nortliwards along the Murnian railway to the coast of the White Sea, the country is quite level, with bogs as far as eye can reach. The southern shores of Seesjiirvi are high and rock}-. There are fairly fer- tile areas between the rocks. (Fig. 21). South-south-west of Paadene there is a huge rocky ridge which stretches east of Selkienjiirvi and Jankajiirvi. Here rises among others the dominating Eninkivaara, soutli of the \-illage of vSelki. The extensive waste between vSelki and Himola is flatter. The rocky region south of Seesjiirvi continues southwards in extensive and level wastes. Rocky ridges of quartzite and greenstone first appear iu the neighbourhood of Ahvenjiirvi andTchobin to the south-east. Between them lies the valley of the Kumsujoki, 55 metres deep, with steep sides. There are other, less important ridges south of vSemtsijarvi. An extensive mountain grou]) begins in the neighbourhood of the \-iIlage of Keldose'kii. Its eastern arm ends to the east of Paljiirvi, while its western arm can be followed along the west of Piiljarvi to the neighbourhood of the village of Koikari on the Sununjoki, and thence onwards between Piilajiirvi and \'atsilanjarvi. On the south, north and eastern sides of this large group of mountains there are exten- sive low-lying bogs. The region round the north-west of Lake Onega (34 ni.) has peculiar cha- racteristics, as is seen by a glance at the map. The northern jjait of the lake is broken up into fjord-like gulfs, with long, generalh- rocky, peninsulas between them. The same characteristics continue towards the west in valleys and rid- ges, to the western portion of the Paljiirvi and Piiliijiir\-i fell groui)s, and south of them to the western side of Munjiirvi, Kentjiirvi and Uksujiir\-i. The ridges reach a height of 100—150 metres above the sea. Several of the higher sum- mits give an extraordinarily extensiA-e \'iew over this ]jeculiar landscape and T^ake Onega. Among such view-j)oints may be named Suollusmiiki near Petro- savodsk, Pyhiiselkii on the shore of Santalajiirvi, and Kurhananselkii on the northern side of Piiljiirvi. Many of the valleys are very fertile, partly because they are sheltered by ridges of rock and open towards the south, partly pro- bably because the rock of that area, which is a calciferous greenstone, makes the soil fertile. The lakes are picturesque, with clear water, and abound in fish. The whole peninsula between the Oulfs of Kontui)ohja and Povenets, called Zaonezhje, is famous for its fruitfulness. On the south-west shore of Onega there is a grouj) of im])ortant heights FICXXIA 42 Xo. 3. 71 (over 150 111.). Othervvi.se tlie Olouets Lsthiiius between the Lakes Onega and Ladoga is fairly flat (50—100 in.), but \aried, with now forest, now meadow- land (clay) and bog, and then again undulating country with small hills (Fig. 22). Special mention must be made of the south-west glen of vSiiamajarvi, 35 kilometres long, the sides of which are formed by low hills with stee}) slopes. This region is fertile in many parts, and comparatively thickly populated. In iiuiny places the forest between the villages has been cut down and burn beaten. One can travel tens of kilometres without seeing any trees except the fir groves in the \-illage burial grounds. In many places sandy heaths stretch on each side of the boulder ridges. On the other hand, the Onega Isthmus, between Lake Onega and the Ciulf of Onega, lies rather higher. Here the ground rises to a maximum of 100— 150 metres above the sea, btit there are also plateau-like heights or small moun- tains which attain an altitude of 200 metres and more. J. E. RoSBERG and P. PlSKOL.\. 2. The Coast.) The climate of the Carelian and Pomorian coasts is foggy and cold. P'og is frequent in the spring and summer (May— July), especialh- when there is a northerh' wind. With southerly winds the air is generally clear. The cold fogs are less often noticeable on the inner shores of the Gulf of Onega than in Kandalaks. The ice begins to form in November — off Kem often as early as Octo- ber — and it generally does not melt until the end of May. (In the years 1 899 and 1902 there was still fast ice on the coasts of P^ast Carelia in June, and in 1911 and 1916 there were masses of pack-ice in that month). During the winter it is easy to get out over the ice to the nearest islands, and at many points the high-roads which follow the coa.st are straightened out by short cuts over frozen inlets. P\irther out fast ice seldom forms; the ice often drifts about the whole winter under the influence of gales and currents. It may often happen therefore that the vSolovets islands, for example, are cut off from all communication with the mainland for several weeks at a time. The ice floes often pile up in high ramparts on islands and banks. Such piled masses of drift-ice have sometimes revealed the existence of new submarine shoals. The interior has a general gradual inclination towards the coast, as is shown bv the fact that the smaller water-courses run roughlv at right angles 72 ./■ '•-■ /•'"-'"'i,'. 'I'lu- Cc.ist. to the coiitit-line. The I'ikujoki is an exception, running diagonally- out to- wards the shore. Tliis is due to tlie large glacial deposits which have closed the more natural course of this river. The maps also show that this river receixes nearly all its tributaries on the left bank, scarcely any on the right. There is in many respects a wide difference between the Carelian coast and the Pomorian. The Carelian coast falls only very slightly towards the sea, and even i)ercei:)tibly rises in that direction, so that great masses of water remain inside the coastal belt in the form of extensi\e lakes and large bogs. At a distance of several miles from the coast the .soil formations cea.se to cover the rocky foundation, which becomes more and more visible, giving the region a barren appearance. North of Kieretti in particular, the shore is domi- nated by cliffs. Only here and there does a wind-swept pine find a foothold in the barren gravel. I'inally, in the inneimo.st waters of Kandalaks, the cliffs and islands seem to be sky-high. They attain as uuich as a coui)le of hundred metres above the surface of the sea. The innermost reaches of Kandalaks have a fjord-like appearance, and somewhat recall the fjords of West ^lur- man. South of Kieretti the coast gets lower and the archipelago less domi- nating. This archipelago makes the Carelian coast difficult of navigation. None but a native pilot can find the way. vSouth of Kieretti especially, where the sounds are shallower and shoals more numerous, na\igation offers great difficulties. The coa.st is stony, and in many places has a bank 10— 20 metres high. Behind this loom the higher mountains of the interior. The shores are niosth' covered with low, mixed forest growth; on the banks of the river's and coastal lakes there are grassy meadows. The larger islands off the Carelian coast are stony and covered to some extent with moraine gravel and pine forest, while the smaller ones are bare granite rocks with tundra xegetation. The higher points on the coast attain an altitude of 85 — 105 metres. The Pomorian coast is partly .sandy (Fig. 23) and partly swampy. It has many gulfs in which rivers and streams deboiich. Most of these river mouths offer good anchorage, at least for small vessels. The water is clear and greenish on the Carelian coast, but in towards the Gulf of Onega it gets thicker, and assumes a leaden grey colour. It is exceed- ingly nmddy outside all the river mouths. Tliis coast is less disturbed by high seas than the Carelian coast. South of the Solovets Islands the .sea .seldom runs very high, though it can be choppy, es])ecially when the wind is in the north-west. The sandy headlands and ])eninsulas extend imder the water as reefs, which considerabK- add to the difficultv of navigation. This coast also has a Fig. 21. Natural i\leado\vs in the village of Maaselka on Lake Seesjarvi. Province of Povenets. Photo P. Eskola. Fig. 22. Hilly Landscape at the Village of Vesk'elyg, Saaruajaj-vi.. Province of Povenets. All the slopes have b's^n.-'bvrarlJtiatorA *. ■•'. Photo /■". Eskola. Fig. 23. Field of Sand and the Great Posting Road, near the Market Town of Sunia. Province of Kern. Photo /. Sourander. Fig. 24. Oulanka River. Province o!' 'Ketn.* « - > •' '^'''' Photo J. B. Rosberg. '^'^;:: sv-^* dii(,«<^ >»^ :,W: Fig. 25. Usmankoski Rapids, Upper Part, in the Kem River. Photo /. A'. Inha. Fig. 26. Village of List pohja, on Lake Seesjarvj. ■ Proyinee'©!', r^j 3', j ; Povenets. '- . .'-«'.>>•' '•'-' '''• •""•»' Photo P. Eskola. 1'1;nMA 42 No. 3. 73- fairly numerous archipelago, whicli cannot, however, be compared in magni- tude or wild majesty with that on tlie Kandalaks coast. The Solo vets Islands properly belong to this archipelago. In many places the islands are moor-like. Half way between them and the mainland there begins a complicated archi- I)elago of low islands and islets with stony shores, 'j'his, which is called the Kem archipelago, continues southwards in a string of islands towards the Gulf of Onega. The.se groups of islands are generally called the vSuma Archipelago, outside the mouth of the Suma, and the Onega Archipelago further down in the gulf of that name. Tlie larger of these islands are covered with forest, while the smaller ones are bare, and have the tundra vegetation. Inside the line of this archipelago there are large, shallow bays with low islands here and there,. ^- especially clcse to the coast. At low tide these are often joined together, while at high tide the sea rises high up on their shores. The old coast line shows that the sea once came higher up in East Carelia, and it seems as if it had recently begun to rise again. The whole archipelago gives the impression of cut up land or sea bottom, and the coastal belt is very boggy. The very extensive coastal bogs are only passable where wooden caiiseways ha\'e been constructed over them, or where two hewn logs have been placed side by side to form foot- bridges. The changes of the tide are very marked, especially on the shallow Ponio- rian coast. ]\Iany of the river mouths, for example those of the Kem and Uiku- joki rivers, are inaccessible to larger vessels at low tide, and a number of sounds are then innavigable. The spring tide is 1.2—2.4 metres high at the town of Kem. There is often a strong current between the vSolovets Islands and the mouth of the Kem river, caused by the tidal water. When the flood tide at the Kem Islands meets the ebb between these and the Solovets Islands, there is a strong but short tidal wave which can be dangerous for small boats. Even between Kem and the monastery the .steamer is often delayed to some extent by the currents and conflicting waves. At high tide with a wind off the sea, the boats have to be drawn up high on the shore, to be out of the way of the waves. The tides also produce currents in narrower sounds between the islands. There is no sudden turn of the tidal current here as in the •>throat'> of the White Sea. Northerly and north-westerly winds increase the height of the tide and diminish the ebb; southerly and south-westerly winds on the other hand drive the water off the shore. At the mouths of the Kem river, the I'iku- joki and other large watercourses, fresh water collects and floats for a time on the surface. This surface water, which is cau.sed b}- heavy rainfall, tends to weaken the flood tide and streni^then the ebb. — The variation of the tides 7 4 J. E. Rosberg and P. Eskola, The Inland WatcTs. on tlie Careliun coast is about 2 metres. The tide conies in here from the north- nortli-west. Tlie mouth of the Kem river is so shallow that the steam boats sto]) outside off the j^reat sawmills. The traffic between them and the town is served by large rowing boats. The shallow shore of the (iulf of Onega, especi- all)', is left dry at low tide, large expanses being unco\-ered and sandbanks api^earing all over. (For the vertical height of the tide see }>. 12 in the chapter on the sea). The tides are perceptible for several kilometres up the mouths of the rivers, and in some of them cause \arying currents \\\)- and down- stream. The currents on the East Carelian coast have however as yet been little studied. J. K. RosbBrg. 3. The Inland Waters. The distribution of water in many parts of the territory strongly recalls that seen on the Finnish side of the frontier. Here too there are numerous lakes, large and small, which group themselves in systems. Their waters gather in some central lake, and drain thence by some river down to the sea. Xear tlie coast there is a large number of smaller streams. The long and nar- row lakes and inlets of the north-west coast of Lake Onega, the Zaonezhje Peninsula, are quite peculiar from a hydrographical point of view. The water seldom runs far in the same valley, but in many places where glacial forma- tions have blocked its course, has broken its way through into another valley running parallel. In many parts of F^ast Carelia there are no clearly marked watersheds, and the people declare that the water systems are connected b}' bogs. Xo bi- furcated rivers or lakes worth speaking of are known, howe\-er. {}) In marshy areas there are a number of small, bog-lakes without visible outlet. The shape of the lakes depends chiefly on the structure of the rock founda- tion, and sometimes also on glacial deposits. In the gfanite area the lakes are capriciously irregular. Koutajjirvi, Ontojiirvi, Uikujiirvi and in the south Saamiijiirvi may be mentioned as examples. In the slate districts the lakes generally- lie with their length following the direction of the rock formations, and a glance at the map shows that both in the south of F'ast Carelia and in (') It is true that in nuun' places the maps show floul>le outlets to the lakes, various forked rivers, and a large 'number of lakes without any outlet. All this is erroneous. The shapes of the lakes also are often, as already mentioned, completely misrepresented on the maps. FKNNIA 42 No. 3.; 75 Finnish Carelia the typical direction is north-west to south-east. I'urther north, in the province of Keiu, the lakes mostly lie with their length running east and west, as in the Kuusanio cUstrict of iMuland. There are in Kast Car- elia a large number of lakes imbedded in moraine or other soils, whose shapes are thereb}- affected. Seesjarvi is in its wa>- unique. Although this lake is surrounded on practically every side by quartzite and other slate formations, it is almost square in shape, and almost de^•oid of islands. An open inland sea like this is unusual in I'inland, if its counterpart is to be found at all. It is probable that this lake is in a comparati\ely recent depression, as is also suggested by the fact that it is unusually dee]), 99 metres. Otherwise, the depth of the lakes \-aries very nuich. The I<*ast Carelian i)art of Lake Ladoga is comparati\-ely shallow, the greatest depth (260 metres) Iving to the west of \'alamo, but the northern parts of Lake Onega can show fairly considerable depths (maxinumi 130 metres). The Seesjarvi basin is also, as stated, very deeply depressed. Among the northern lakes, Piiajarvi is (according to Nordqvist) 34 metres deep, Yli-Kitkajarvi 28 metres, Kouta- jarvi 37 metres, Soujceloj arvi 10, Kuukasjarvi 61, Mossanjar\-i IT^/g ^^^^ I^^" pinjiirvi 22 metres. Rosberg has noted the following among comparatively deep lakes in the central regions; Lupajarvi, Matkajarvi, Kaunisjiirvi, Tjiais- jiirvi, Talveisjar\-i. Palojiirvi, \'oijarvi, Syvalampi, Unusjarvi, Jolmajarvi, Kaitajarvi and Tuoppajarvi. Several of the Zaonezhje lakes are fairly deep. On the other hand, shallow lakes are perhaps more common than on the Fin- nish lake plateau. The shallow lakes are often full of islands. It is said of many of these island-studded lakes, such as L^ikujar\i, that >>They have as many islands as there are days in the year, and one over». Most of the lakes have dark but clear bog water. The long, deep moun- tain lakes such as Voijarvi and Jolmajarvi have clear, transparent water, as also have the lake arms of Onega, such as vSantala and Paljiirvi. vStill clearer water is found in the lakes in hog'sback country or on sandy heaths. In the innermost corner of the Kandalaks Fjord the river Kammanjoki has its mouth. This river, which at times is of very great volume, rises in the northern slopes of Kaitatunturi, and unites with tlie Ripina which rises on the southern slopes of the same group of fells. The upper reaches of both rivers contain many rapids. The Kouta system is drained by a river 200 metres wide which debouches at Kouta. The central lake of this system is the huge KoutajarA'i (according to vStrelbitski 584 sq. km. in area). This lake receives on the west the waters of the mighty Pajijarvi system through the Tuntsajoki, on the south the Tyllinjoki system and on the north-west the Tovantojarvi 76 /. /:". Nosht'ig and I', lisliohi. Tlu- Iiil;iii- of the same name. The ri\-er Kicrctfijoki runs (uit at the \-illage of Kieretti, after draining two large lakes (one of which, Kiertinjar\-i, has an area of 404 sq. km.) and a whole series of smaller ones. The Kalkajoki runs out at Kalkalahti, bringing the waters of Tvnkijar\i (274 sq. km.) and several smaller lakes. The Ponkamo- joki runs out at Ponkamo, after draining a .series of lakes which forn:s the natural continuation of the Tuo])j)ajarvi basin, but has been cut off from it by bog and glacial deposits. At the time of the .spring floods Tuoppajilrvi and Leiviskjiirvi, which belong to the Ponkamojiirvi system, exchange their waters. The surface of Tuoppajar\i has been lowered by erosion in the precipi- tous waterfall of the Tuop])ajoki river, so that its shores are now low. The Kent water system, which according to vStrelbitski is 405 km. long and drains an area of 31,499 .sq. km., runs out at the town of the same name, and has Jxskyjiirvi for its central lake. The ri\-er Kem is magnificent. It can perha])s best be com])ared with the river lijoki in P'inland. Its \alley is not very deeply carved. Its banks are sand\- or stony and often turn into open bog at a little distance from the river. Here and there the river expands into wide reaches, bordered by ]>leasant meadows and rich deciduous vegetation. There are at least twenty large rajiids between the central lake and the mouth, and several of them are five or six kilometres lon<'. The largest is I'smankoski l-l'.NMA 42 No. 3. 77 (I'i,!;. 25), famous for its saliiioii lisliin^. I'or the first t'ii;hteeii or nineteen kilometres abo\e the town ol Kem, the rixe'' ]jractieally consists of a siujj;le strons; current, which makes jnmting up stream fairly difficult. The spring; flood often overflows the banks, and occasionally damages houses in the town. In the middle of the summer the water j^ets comparatively low. The river is broad and shallow at Kem, but has a fairly stroui; current. On its left bank it receives the waters of the Kei)ajoki s}-stem and the Sompa system, and on the right bank the X'oijarvi system, which drains a number of moraine lakes. Some miles to the south of the lower end of J \sk_\jar\i, the Kemjoki flows through the little lake of Paanajar\-i. Lake Jyskyjdrvi drains two large systems, those of Kuittijiirvi and the Tchirkkakemijoki. The former draws its waters from the three large Kuitti- jlwvi lakes, of which the two lower, Keskijiirvi (494 sq. km.) and Ala-Kuitti- jar\-i (238 sq. km.) lie end to end like two long scoops, while the upper one, Yla-Kuittijiirvi (291 sq. km.) lies rather more to one side, and according to Inha, is more divided into a number of arms. Draining into this lake there are the Pistojoki (which abounds in pearl mussels) rising in Kuusanio and flowing through Pistojar\-i (205 sq. km.), the Kursmanjoki and the Latva- : jar\-i and IJvijoki systems, both of which rise in lakes on the frontier. The i; lake Yla-Kuittijiirvi empties itself b>- a .short but swift stream into Keski- Kuittijar\-i, which then receives the Keiittijoki system from the south. Keski- Xuittijarvi is connected with Ala-Kuittijar\i by the sound of Luusalmi, and a short river with three rapids leads from the latter lake to Jy.skyjarvi. The three Kuittijiirvi lakes are in many places so wide that the opposite shore can- not be seen. The Tchirkkakemijoki is a picturesque rixer about 200 kilometres long and fairl}- swift; — between Tchirkkakemby and Jysk}jar\-i there are 40 rapids, though a number of them are fairly insignificant. The banks are mostly sandy (moors, moraine land and hog'sbacks), and in jjlaces also swampy. From the west it receives the Kivijar\'i system, the most important lakes in which are Ki\ijarvi (245 sq. km.) and Xjuokkijar^•i. There is a narrow valley between Kivijar\i and Luvajarvi in which the ri\er forms some thirty rapids, the most magnificent being Laippa. The .scenery here vies in beauty with that of northern Kuusanio. Njuokkijiirvi (206 .sq. km.) sends its waters down to the Tchirkkakemijoki by two channels, the Rastahanjoki and the Hiime- hanjoki, which encircle the long, sand and moraine gravel island of Nuokki.saari. The Tjolmajiirvi system flows into the Tchirkkakemijoki through the Lietma- joki a little to the south of the confluences of the abo\e mentioned rivers. 78 ,/. E. Rosberg and P. Eskola. Tlit- lulaiul Waters. At vSuiku, between Keni and vSorokka, there is the outlet of a small system draining Suiknjarvi and a few smallish lakes. The Uikujoki gathers its waters in north-east Olonets, and debouches at Sorokka. Its central lake, Uikujarvi (861 sq. km.) is large, island-studded and surrounded by moors. Into it flow the \'oshnia from the east, the upper Uiku- joki from the south-east and the Sekehenjoki, which comes from lake vSees- jarvi from the south-west. The Uikujoki is the longest of these. It, like the Voshma, rises in the bogs east of the frontier of the pro\-ince of Povonets, and then flows towards the north-west. Seesjdrvi (1,246 sq. km., l''ig. 26), the pride of Hast Carelia, is the largest and most picturesque lake in this sj'stem, and is likely to attract a denser population to its shores in time to come. It lies sunk in a rocky basin, and is fed only b}- fairly short sj'stems. Among these may be mentioned the vSuonte- lenjoki, which gathers its waters far in in the great waste, and is connected by a stream which sometimes runs in one direction and sometimes in the other with the wonderfully beautiful, peak-enclosed lake of \'oijarvi. A contribu- tory s^-stem is the vSelki, which draws its waters from vSemt.sijar\-i, Jankajiirvi and Unojarvi, and the central lake of which is Selkienjarvi. Seesjarvi emp- ties itself into Uikujarvi through the magnificent river Sekehenjoki, which contains a number of rapids. The Povenets Gulf of Lake Onega can be reached from vSeesjarvi through a series of small lakes and streams, and by dragging the boats over narrow necks of land. The river Vyg, or Uikujoki, (409 km. long, draining an area of 26,344 sq. km.) flows out in the Gulf of vSorokka, and although rather swift in man}- places is navigable for the greater part of its course. Near lake ^'yg (Uikujarvi) is the precipitous, six metre high waterfall of \'ojatsukoski, one of the highest and most splendid waterfalls in East Carelia. (Fig. 21). Boats have to be dragged o\^x land past this and another large fall in the same river, Schardno, twelve metres high. Below this fall the river widens out into lake \'ojatsu- jiirvi, and below this again, as far as the confluence of the Ontajoki, there is a succession of rapids. Nearly the whole of the lower reaches are navigable for boats. Near vSorokka the river di\'ides into several arms, which contain smal- ler rapids. In the arm on which Sorokka .stands there is a channel 1.3 metres deep. Outside the delta there is a sandbank which changes its position and height each year after the ice melts. vSteamboats generally anchor at some distance from the land, and conmiunication with the \illage of Sorokka is maintained by motorboats. As stated above, this river receives most of its tribu- taries on the left bank. The longest of them is the Ontajoki. which debouches FJ;XMA 42 No. 3. 79 into Ontajarvi (179 sq. km.) from the north-west, and flows through that lake, wliile the Kuusiniemi system feeds it from the south-west, coming from J olma- jiirvi, a narrow lake enclosed between hog'sbacks. Other tributaries of the river I'ikujoki include the Onigmajoki, the Kivijoki and the Tungujoki. The Simiajoki flows out in the Gulf of vSunia, after draining a number of largish lakes. Its meandering curves are in man}- j^laces eating into the moors over which it flows. At high tide this river is na^•igable for small vessels. It is about 100 metres, and at the mouth, near the town of Suma, 140 metres wide. Outside the mouth there is a sandbank o\-er which the water is at times only 1 Ya nietres deep, but inside this the depth is 3.7 to 5.5 metres. The first rapids (going up-stream) are just above the town. It is from this river that communication with Lake Onega has been suggested, by means of a canal (about 60 km. long) and through a number of lakes. Unfortunately, however, the river freezes in the end of October, and is not ice-free until IMay. The break- ing up of the ice is not especially difficult, although the river flows north- wards, as the ice-floes get broken up in the rapids. The other streams on the coast drain the large bogs beyond the coastal belt. The fjord-like northern arms of Lake Onega (9,751.6 sq. km.) are continued in the same direction b}' valleys and long, narrow lakes. Many of these are exceedingly picturesque, with their high banks, which are parti}' forest clad and partly rocky. The river Kumsujoki flov^s into the northernmost arm of Lake Onega (the Gulf of Povenets) from Kalakumsujiirvi and Kumsujiirvi^ wath the magnificent Buhma rapids, below which it runs in a south-easterly direction through a deeply cleft valley. As the ^•alley is more than 50 nietres deep, the tributaries of the Kumsujoki make high and precipitous falls at their confluences. The chief of these tributaries is the Osterjoki, which comes from northern Osterjarvi. The long river Sununjoki rises on »AIaanselka», near the lakes where the Pielisjarvi system begins, and flows out in the Gulf of Kontupohja. The lakes of Motkojarvi, Soimijarvi and Koutajar\i belong to one arm of this system, and Lupajiirvi and \^onkerijarvi to the other. The largest lake in the s^'stem is Himolanjarvi. The river Sununjoki is famous for its three great rapids, Hir- vas, Porokoski and Kivatsu (Kivatch). The two first-named lie close together above Sununjarvi, while Kivatsu is below that lake. This last rapid has a fall of 15 metres, and its force is estimated at 26,000 horse power, Kivatsu is much frequented by tourists and much sung by poets (Dershavin, Grave, etc.) The force of Porokoski (Fig. 28) has been estimated at about 38,000 horse power, but this figure is unquestionably too high. The rapids are about half a kilo- ,X() /. E. lioshc)'^ (Dill J'. Jisl<,>l-' (b'vidcd by a massive formation of Iioulder-stone and yravel. i *-^';M K^ m i^^^ 'S»' "Ti HK fli^iflmlVffrlHl HMm ,^i^H 1 ■H ^^J*^ ^ i< IH| ^ K j ^ "^SS iipan^ ▼Mp ■ •« -« L^ ' -i^ . ;v.,.iS^ Fig. 27. Vojatsunkoski Rapids in the Uikujoki (River Vyg). Village of Vojatsu in the the background. Province of Kern. Plioto P. Eskola. Fig. 28.BPorokoski Rapids (Left Arm) in the Sunuiijoki. ' ' • ' Photo P. Eskola. I ^^ -i**^ * > 1 ^ A- aM 1& I«lllll»ll BHHH| Bjj^ljIg^^l^JftHB^^^iii P^HH ^^PIP J^H^^^IHVIi^lliH^^^^^^^^^^^^^^HiflHi^;' jt ■ ' V ^^^^^ ««i.__^^^^^^, ;--*^ " ^J. -^^^■^^^j^« l^^gSaS-^*^; • " ^TiiiSMM'iliiili V if?ilNii-lir '^^^B Fig. 29. Mountain of Greenstone beside Lake Paljarvi. Village of Pj-hanienii, Province of Povenets. Photo P. Eskoia. Fig. 30. Pit for Working Copper Ore at the village of Pyhaniemi. and a Workman from Pyhaniemi, Province oi PoVenetei' *•, ,* i Photo P. Eskoia. FIvXXIA 42 Xo. 3. 81 jjirvi is fed by the Tsapjoki, from the large but shallow lake Saanuijiirvi (Siani- jarvi). The mountain range west of Onega forms the watershed towards the La- doga slope. Only .short streams flow from this watershed into the former lake, while long, winding rivers make their way to Ladoga or the S\ir. Among the latter ma}- here be mentioned the \'ashinka, which flows into the S\'ir, and the Ala\-oisenjoki, which goes to Ladoga. The Svir flows fairly calmly over bogs or moors. An enthusiastic writer says that the traffic on this river is so lively that »its like cannot be found in all Europe». Finall}- must be mentioned the water courses which make their wa}- into Finland. The Tuleniajoki runs from Tulemajarvi down to Ladoga. The large lakes of the Lieksa system lie in a well-marked basin, and among them may be named Roukkulajarvi, Liek.sajarvi (242 sq. km.), Koroppi, Tuulijarvi (280 sq. km.), vSuulajar\-i, Saarenjiirvi, Aimojiirvi, Lentierajiirvi and Alanenjarvi. The waters from this basin fall into Pielisjar^-i by the Lieksajoki, which forms four fairly difficult rapids on its way, and the sharp bends in which to north- west and .south-east are caused by the well-marked ridges. J. E. RosBERG and P. Eskola. 4. The Rock Foundation and Soil. From a geological and geographical point of view East Carelia and the Kola Peninsula both belong to Fennoscandia. The rock foundation of these regions is the' direct continuation of the rock foundation of Finland. The rocks there as in lunland con.sist of gneis, granite, and cr^'stalline .slates. As in Finland, the hard rock foundation is mostly covered by loo.se formations of gravel, sand, clay and peat. In the south-east and the ea.st the.se old rock foundations sink below the palaeozoic and later depo.sits of the Russian plain. There Fennoscandia borders on an area of a completely different geological nature. The boundary runs on the Carelian Isthmus from near the mouth of the Systerback to Kivinienii rapids in the \'uok.sen. Between Ladoga and Onega it runs from the neighbourhood of the town of Olonets to near the place where the Svir lea^•es C)nega, and from the eastern shore of Onega it runs some distance south of Pudosh in a long cur\-e to the east towards the moutli of the Onega river, (see the appended geological map). This old rock foundation, which belongs to the pre-cambrian geological period, can be divided into two main parts, (1) ancient primeval rock, which 6- 82 II'. liiansay (did P. Eskola, TIr- Rock Ivmiulation and Soil. everywhere forni.s the conimon foundation, and (2) more recent canibriau formations, found in scattered localities. a The primeval rock in I^ast Carelia and Kola, as in the eastern parts of Fin- * land, is mostly composed of granite and granite gneis. Mica-schist and other schists proper are rare. Round Kandalaks there is an extensive area of garnet 1 aniphibolite. Among tlie more recent pre-cambrian formations in ICast Care- lia, I'innish geologists have distinguished \-arious groups of different ages, which the}' have called by the following names; Jotnian, Onegian, Jatulian, and Kale\'ian. The mo.st recent of these is the Jotnian di\-ision, which appears over an extensive area west of Lake Onega, from the Svir to Petroskoi. Its main portion is composed of red sandstone, the beds of which lie fairly hori- zontally. Diabase has penetrated between the beds. vSimilar sandstones are found at places in Satakunta and elsewhere in I'ennoscandia. The Onegian, Jatulian and Kalevian groups resemble one another, and are all more or less folded and schistous. To these belong quartzites and conglo- merates, pliyllite, dolomite, and a lot of greenstone, which originally either penetrated between the beds of quartzite or distributed itself in volcanic for- mations. All these formations appear in long-drawn-out stretches between tracts of prime\al rock. The chief areas are west and north-west of Lake Onega in the government of Olonets, and in the go\-ernment of Archangel, within an area stretching from Uikujiirvi in the .south to near the Keni river, lixtensive Jatul-Kale\-ian areas extend their ramifications towards the White Sea side; here we find the Kivakka and Paanuorunen tundras of diabase, which geologically belong to the Jatulian greenstones. It must be remembered that similar Jatulian and Kalevian formations are exceedingly co^nunon in Finland, both in Carelia and in northern Ostrobothnia and in Lapland. The Soils are of the quaternary period, and in the main the same as those in Finland. On the Carelian Isthmus as well as on the isthmus between lakes Onega and Ladoga in the southern portion of the Petrosavodsk sandstone district, the layers of soil are so deep that the rock foundation is nowhere visible. The commonest everywhere are moraine gravel, boulder gravel and sand. Cla}- soil is found in low-lying ground in the neighbourhood of Ladoga and Onega, but the clay-fields do not rise nearly so high above the sea level as they do in Finland, owing to the fact that in these regions, on the border of I'^ennoscandia, the ri.se in the le\'el of the ground after the Ice Age was less considerable than in the interior of that area. Bogs and fens are frequent everywhere. In the province of Kem especially, the low-lying coasts of the Gulf of Onega spread in open fens as far as the eye can reach. The laver of Sf GEOLOGICAL MAP or EAST CARELIA AND HOLA LAFMAJ^H Granite and gneiss (primaeval rock). Reference to colours. Quartzite and greenstone. Rapakivi granite. Nephelin Syenite. Sandstone and diabase. Stratified formations of the Russian plains '^jjllf^ to FIvNXlA 42 No. 3. 83 peat is, however, comparatively shallow, and under it lie large deposits of clay, which are common all over the coast of the White vSea, but are not found much above sea level. Further to the west in the province of Keni there are high-lying summits covered with moraine gravel, where in a few places the rock becomes visible. Near Sorokka the boundary between the marshy plains and the undulating gravel country runs about fifty kilometres from the coast. Further to the north-the high gravel country draws nearer to the coast, and the undulating surface reaches the coast near Kem. The configuratioti of East Carelia is clearly influenced by the rock founda- tion, and to a lesser extent also by the soils. The different parts of the country correspond fairly closely with the different parts of Finland on which they respective!}' border. The region east of Ladoga in the south is broken country, as the character of the surface is determined by the small irregularities caused by moraines and other glacial formations. In the sandstone region west of Lake Onega the configuration is shaped by the rock foundation. Diabase tracts rise as rocky plateaus above this sandstone region. Further north, the region of primeval granite and granite gneis is in the main level, while the Jatulian and Kalevian districts are much more uneven. Here the stretches of greenstone and especially quartzite form long ridges, the valleys between wdiich rest on foundations of phyllite and dolomite and also primeval rock. The difference in level between the summits and the valleys is at most 150 metres. A specially striking example is the valley of the Kumsu- joki, which is about sixty metres deep, with precipitous sides. The gneis region on the west coast of the Gulf of Onega is very low-lj'ing and level. Further to the west, in the Jatulian region, there are ridges and deep valleys. The land gets gradually higher towards the north, and on the Kandalaks Fjord even the regions of primeval rock are high and moun- tainous. In Olonets Carelia and White Sea Carelia, as also in eastern Finland, high- lying land is cultivated by preference. As the rock foundation of the highlands is generally of quartzite or greenstone, it follows that these, and other rocks of more recent formation than the primeval, are often found near the villages, while the primeval rock must be sought in the extensi\-e, boggy, low-lying wastes. But there is an other reason beside the configuration wliich makes the former regions more suited to cultivation; they are more fertile. Luxu- riant vegetation is always found in dolomite regions, and the greenstone FJvNXlA 42 No. 3. 83 peat is, however, comparatively shallow, and under it lie large deposits of clay, which are common all over the coast of tlie White Sea, but are not found much above sea level. Further to the west in the province of Kem there are high-lying summits covered with moraine gravel, where in a few places the rock becomes visible. Near Sorokka the boundary between the marshy plains and the undulating gravel country- runs about fifty kilometres from the coast. Further to the north -the high gravel country draws nearer to the coast, and the undulating surface reaches the coast near Kem. The coujiguraiion of East Carelia is clearly influenced by the rock founda- tion, and to a lesser extent also by the soils. The different parts of the country correspond fairly closely wdth the different parts of Finland on which they respectively border. The region east of Ladoga in the south is broken country, as the character of the surface is determined b}' the small irregularities caused by moraines and other glacial formations. In the sandstone region west of Lake Onega the configuration is shaped by the rock foundation. Diabase tracts rise as rocky plateaus above this sandstone region. Further north, the region of primeval granite and granite gneis is in the main level, while the Jatulian and Kalevian districts are much more uneven. Here the stretches of greenstone and especially quartzite form long ridges, the valleys between wliich rest on foundations of ph}-llite and dolomite and also primeval rock. The difference in level between the summits and the \'alleys is at most 150 metres. A specially striking example is the valley of the Kunisu- joki, which is about sixty metres deep, with precipitous sides. The gneis region on the west coast of the Gulf of Onega is very low-lying and le^'el. Further to the west, in the Jatulian region, there are ridges and deep valleys. The land gets gradually higher towards the north, and on the Kandalaks Fjord even the regions of prime^•al rock are liigh and moun- tainous. In Olonets Carelia and White Sea Carelia, as also in eastern P'inland, high- lying land is cultivated by preference. As the rock foundation of the highlands is generally of quartzite or greenstone, it follows that these, and other rocks of more recent formation than the primeval, are often found near the villages, while the primeval rock must be sought in the extensive, boggy, low-lying wastes. But there is an other reason beside the configuration which makes the former regions more suited to cultivation; they are more fertile. Luxu- riant vegetation is always found in dolomite regions, and the greenstone 84 /'. Jis/iolci. r.sftnl ort-s, other iniiu-rals aiul stones. districts seem e\"eu more fruitful, as this rock contains calcium carbonate as well as other substances on which i)lants feed. A comi)arision of maps show- ing vegetation with maps showing the rock foundation reveals that schist regions of more recent formation than the prime\-al rock are often particular!)- fertile. Owing to the pecidiar geological history of the country, the water courses of Ivast Carelia are still in an early stage of development. This is shown by the large number of lakes and rapids. These last are sure to be a great source of wealth to the country in the future. W. R.\M.SAY and P. Kskol.a.. 5. Useful ores, other minerals and stones. I'vA'er since the time of Peter the Great there has been eager search for ores in Olonets and the government of Archangel. The search has been stimulated by the fact that a solid rock foundation has been found here similar to that in the Urals which has proved so rich in metals. For a couple of centuries there- fore, exploratory and trial workings have been made in Carelia to an al- most incredible extent; foreign experts have often been employed to investigate these regions and their depo.sits of ore. In the time of Catherine II. the Austrian Count Haksch investigated the whole of the government of Olonets, and un- der Alexander II. similar investigations were carried out by the Bait vON Helmersen', not to mention many others. All the workings and investiga- tions, however, have given equally negative results. \"on Helmersen concludes from h,is own observations and those previously made, that no iron, coi:)per or gold ore of any value will ever be discovered in Olonets. The dejiosits of ore in C)lonets and on the \\'hite Sea can be classified into clearly distinguished groups, which are here enumerated. (1) I'ciiis coiitaiiiiiig copper ore. These consist of veins of quartz-limespar occurring in connection with the greenstone (Fig. 29), which contain some cop- per pyrites, Aariegated copper ore or sulpliide of copper, and sometimes also galena or zinc blende. These deposits of copper ore are very connnon, and astonishingly determined attempts to work them ha^•e been made. The pre- .sent writer has counted, during two sunnner excursions in Olonets alone, no less than thirt}--se\-en such worked deposits (I'ig. 30). In several there has been qiiite a lot of blasting, and shafts and tunnels have been constructed. In the south of the go\ernment of Archangel similar work has also been done, but the enterprises have not paid anywhere, as the veins cont*ain inconside- rable and irregular qiumtities of metal. FHXXIA 42 No. 3. 85 One deposit at \'ojatsu at the northern end of Uikujarxi contains ^old as well as copper ore. Tliis has led to a lot of mining in that place. In some parts of the mine, gold has been found in comparative abundance and fairly large nuggets, but lower down it entireh- ceased. In view of the nature of these deposits, the i)resent writer can entirely associate himself with the pessimistic \erdicts of von Helmersen and other older experts. We can in this case also quote the experience gained of similar ore deposits in Finland, belonging to the same group. vSuch deposits are very frequent in this country, as for example at Kontiolaks, F' peculiar. A layer of quart- zite twenty metres deep is here penetrated with copper pyrites and bornite, so that the stone itself sometimes contains three per cent of copper ore, In spite of von Helmersen's assertion, a deposit like this may be worth working, if the ore proves to be sufficiently abundant. No very high metal content can, howe\'er, be expected. In some places in Olonets, quartzite— blended copper ore has been found in loose blocks, which do not seem to belong to the veins. Outokumpu, in Finnish Carelia, where also copper ore is found in quartzite, shows that such deposits can be productive; it should be noted that the geological formation of the southern part of Olonets and White Sea Carelia is of the same nature as that in the Outokumpu district. (3) Deposits of iron ore. North of Tulemajatvi in the Province of Olonets, about fifty kilometres north-east of Ladoga, there are numerous deposits of iron ore in dolomite strata. The ore is iron or hematite {Ve^ O3) and very pure. The depth of the strata varies from a few decimetres to several metres, and their position varies, but is mostly in long slopes, which makes working more difficult. The general diiection is fairly constant, but in detail it sometimes varies capriciously. The strata are found in four different layers, each of which seems to continue unbroken for about ten kilometres. The working has been carried so far that the outer portions of the ore strata, in the rock}^ regions where they were exposed from the beginning, have been blasted away. The work did not pay, and the structures have been allowed to fall into decay. The present w-riter is, however, not convinced that the reason of the poor re- sult lay in the deposit itself. It is true that the Finnish expert, O. Trustedt, who investigated these deposits, did not give great hopes of their yield, be- cause the strata are so shallow and their course and inclination so capricious. But in view of the good quality of the ore, and the fact that it occurs unin- 86 P. Eskola, Useful ores, other iniiurals and stones. terruptedly for a considerable distance, it is impossible not to suppose that, in spite of all, there is here an opportumty for scientific mining adapted to the conditions. The prospects would natural!}- be improved if the railway already planned from vSordavala to Petrosavodsk, via the neighbourhood of Tulema- jiirvi, should be constructed. vSimilar iron ore strata have only been found elsewhere at Suojarvi in Fin- land. Hematite occurs in veins in the neighbourhood of Koikari in Olonets, but these veins are inconsiderable. (4) Bog-ore. Iron ore occurs in several of the Olonets lakes, as it does also in those of east Finland. There too it has previously been worked in considerable quantities. Bog-ore smelting works have existed at Kentjar\i in the province of Petrosavodsk, at \'alamo in the province of Povonets, at Oraiar\'i and at Suontelo west of vSeesjaivi. The last-named smelting works have been started again diiring the war, and the establishment of others has also been considered. In time of peace, iron manufacture employing bog-ore could scarcely pay. We append an enumeration of other useful minerals and rocks occurring in Russian Carelia. (5) Coal. A stratum of anthracite (so-called schungite) two metres deep has been discovered at the \illage of Schunga, on the Gulf of Povenets in Lake Onega. The stratum contains howe\-er more than fifty per cent of ash, and so has up to now not been utilisable for practical purposes. A couple of other coal deposits of a similar character are known in Olonets. So far as is known there is no true pure coal in Russian Carelia, neither are any fresh discoveries to be expected, as all the rocks belong to pre-cambrian formations, and in other parts of the world coal is only found in formations of much more recent date. vSimilarly, there can be no question of rock-oil or naphtha. (6) Baritc has been found in the calcareous rocks in the island of Oleni in Lake Onega, and during recent years has been worked to no small extent. (7) Stro)itiu7n. A Russian geologist has discovered a peculiav strontium- containing calcium carbonate mineral in the carbonaceous scliist of the Sunku district. It is unknown whether the find has any practical value. (8) Mica. A number of pegmatite veins which contain light mica in large, unbroken flakes ha\-e been disco\ered in the gneis foundation in the province of Kem. These deposits were worked in the eighteenth century, and during recent years the working has been resumed in a number of places. (9) Fluor-spar. Veins of fluor-spar occur especially in the Kandalaks area and have also begun to be worked. They are of slight imi)ortance. (10) Pot-stone. There are deposits of pot-stone in the regions of Maanselkii Fi:.\NlA 42 No. 3. 87 and Listjapohja. as well as in the villages of Torasjar\i and Koikari in the province of Povenets. From all these stone is taken for household purposes, ovens and so on. These deposits seem to have no greater importance. (1 1) Asbestos. Thin veins of actinolite asbestos are found in the greenstone in many parts of Olonets. No technically utilisable depo.sits are known. (12) Dolomite is common all over the Jatulian territory of Olonets. The large dolomite and marble quarries of X'alkianmiige are at Tiudie, on the north- ern end of Sandalanjiirvi, and from these 'great quantities of stone have been quarried as building material, for example for the Church of St. Isaac and the ^Marble Palace in Petersburg. Dolomite for iron works has also been quarried on some of the islands in Seesjarvi. There are unlimited quantities of this stone, esiDecially in the region round the Gulf of Povenets, for example at the village of Pjalma. (13) Sandstone. The red sandstone of southern Petrosavodsk is quarried in man}' places for building, and artistic industrial i^urposes. The largest quarries are at Shoksha. Thence came the large block of red sandstone out of which the tomb of Napoleon I. in the Invalides in Paris is hewn. Summary. In the foregoing ~have been shorth- enumerated the deposits of ores and other minerals up to now discovered in Russian Carelia. Some de- posits of practical utility ha\'e certainly been discovered and worked. In general however, it may be said that as far as is known — and Olonets in particular has been fairl}- well in^•estigated — these eastern regions of Fenno.scandia are poor in mineral resources. But in regions like these, so thinly populated and so largely covered with earth strata, it can never be definitely asserted that there are no possibilities of unknown wealth. P. KSKOLA. 6. Climate. The climate of East Carelia is in its main features nmch the same as that of eastern Finland in the corresponding latitude. In the regions roimd the \\'hite Sea, however, it is considerably influenced b}- that large expanse of w^ater. The temperature charts alone show this fairly clear!}-, and by watching and using the meteorological observations from East Carelia, Kola and the regions immediately to the south and east of the White Sea, we can gain a complete and homogeneous picture of the climatic conditions of Finland and Fennoscandia north of the .sixtieth latitude. We have compiled from the Russian meteorological annuals the observations of temperature from fift}--se\-en places in that part of Russia, including Kola ys y //. Hi iiii'ii. CliiuaU-. and Ivast Carelia, w hicli is coxered b\- tlie appendtd map. l-'roiu these observa- tions, together with those obtained from I^nhind, and Hamberg's and Mohn's retuncls of temperature in vSweden and Norway, Dr. (). V. Johansson has been so good as to draw up the three apjjended isotherm charts, showing the annual mean temperature and the mean temperatures for the months of Januar}- and' July. This is given as actualh- ob.ser\ed at tlie different i)oints, i. e., not reduced to the level of the .sea. The annual cur\-es show that the annual mean temjjerature is 0^ (centi- grade) in an area of northern Sweden, Finland and the Kola penin.sula of wlxich the southern limit is marked by a wavy hue (the isotherm of 0") between the .sixty-fifth and sixt}--.sixth latitude. This line has its southernmost point in Sweden, bends nortli-westwards towards the Norwegian frontier, which it then follows to the north-east, runs then eastwards through Norwegian I'inmark, passes between \'ardo and ^'adso, south of the Rybatchi Peninsula on Kola, and then follows the Murnian Coast for some distance. It then runs out into the Arctic Ocean towards the north-east, crosses the Gulf Stream in a north- erly direction, and then turns back first westwards and then to tlie south- west, towards the .southernmost point of Greenland. The southern branch of this i.sotherm crosses the White Sea, and after touching the Russian main- land north of x\rchangel bends to the south-east, and continues in this direc- tion down to Tobol.sk and Omsk in Siberia, in the fifty.- fifth latitude. Within this cold area of Fennoscandia there are two regions where the mean temperature is less than —2^ (i) nanieh', one in the middle of the Kola Peninsula, and a larger one to the west, running from the fell region of north ernmost Sweden to Utsjoki in northernmo.st F'inland. To the north of this whole cold belt, the temperature rises again towards the coast and the ocean, to an annual mean of more than -1- 1® at Hammer fe.st, + 2° at the North Cape, and in the west to -f- 4" and -f 5** on the west coast of Norway. There is another small cold centre with a temperature below zero in the fell region of the Hiirje- dal. The Gulf of Bothnia on the other hand considerably rai.ses the air tempe- rature in the autunni and winter, and so rai.ses the annual mean temperature to -f- 5" in the south and + \^ in the north. In .south and middle Finland therefore, the temperature falls from west to east, as is shown by the direction of the isotherms, which run from north-west to south-east. It rises again very markedly between and around Onega and the White vSea, to fall once more suddenly towards the east. The -f- 5^ isotherm runs through the nio.st south- (M All temperatures are reckoned according to the Centigrade scale. CHART I: -'/ / isi ^.J ; SOTTuttND I fl..E. Q. nrgiJsson O.-V Melsinglors r CHART ^- ^'iiii''!:''«i- CHART L.T n. B. Q. nr«iclsson 0,-Y. Hclsingfors r i.iBflM 31 so CHART / : ' 10' «* m ^1^ ^? w N TV r ^■^A \ ^ _#i SA, Fi ^ 15 TL*NB SLL *i Lift: 10- ^* '^^aa- S/Aj FJ 'jL rTL*ND 15 JULY ISOTHERMS 1886—1905 B, Q. flrJidsson 0,-V Helsing' F1;NNIA 42 No. 3. Ki» westerly point of Finland, past Aland and Hani^c), and then goes to the south- east somewhat to the east of Re^■al and Pernau. The January isotJicrms show severe minimal temperatures of less than — 15° in the same areas as furnish the annual minima, namely the centre of the Kola Peninsula, and the region round Muonio in the north- westei n corner' of Finland. The cold belt across the north of Fennoscandia is now closed^ with a temperature of less than — 13° and north of this the temperature rises- again suddenly and markedly to — 4° at the North Cape, the same tempera- ture as is found in our I'innish south-western archij)elago and at Hango, and to ± 0° and -f I ° off the north-west coast of Norway, — the same tempera- ture as is found in Denmark, and in Wurtemberg in the same month. The warming influence in the winter of the sea and large water areas is- thus seen \-er}- clearly. In addition to the very marked rise of temperature on the northern and arctic coasts already mentioned, we see that the northern- most part of the Gulf of Bothnia has the same temperature as Petrograd and Novgorod, and that the well marked maxinumi temperature in the White Sea, above — 10°, is somewhat higher than the temperature of Jaroslav, which our chart shows between — 1 0° and — 11°, and the same as the temperature of ^loscow. Lakes Ladoga and Onega also exert a clearly perceptible warming influence. \\'ith regard to Finland and East Carelia, we find that the winter temperature falls eastwards from the Gulf of Bothnia, but exceptions are formed by the rise of temperature o^■er and round the White vSea, and by the modifying influence of the Gulf of Finland and Lakes Ladoga and Onega. If we follow the variations of temperature from south to north, we find that in Fin- land the temperatiure varies between — 2° off Aland to — 15° in the fells of north-west Laj^land, or over an exceedingly wide range. The average tempera- ture of East Carelia and Kola is perceptibly lower than that of Finland, but the \-ariation from south to north is not so great, as the range is from — 9° east of Lake Ladoga to about — 15° on the high plateau of Kola. The variations of temperature between district and district are decidedly less in the summer than they are in the winter. So too are the changes from da>- to day. In the winter, if southerly or westerly winds prevail, the thermometer may sometimes stand some degrees above zero over the whole of this country-, and then suddenh* sink, when the wind shifts to a northerly quarter, to — 20* or — 30° or even lower. In the summer on the other hand, it is rare for the mean temperature of the twenty-four hours to \-ary by more than fi\-e or six degrees from the normal mean temperature for the ])articular time of year. Yet sunniier shows the great variation within the twenty-fou'- hours, and this FlvNNIA 42 No. 3. 81» westerly point of Finland, past Aland and Hani;("), and then goes to the sonth- east somewhat to the east of Re\al and Pernau . The January isotlicrms show severe minimal temperatures of less than. — 15*^ in the same areas as furnish the annnal minima, namely the centre of the Kola Peninsula, and the region round Muonio in the north- westei n corner' of Finland. The cold belt across the north of P^ennoscandia is now closed,, with a temperature of less than — 1 3** and north of this the temperature rises- again suddenly and markedly to \^ at the Xorth Cape, the same tempera- ture as is found in our iMunish south-western archipelago and at Hang("), and to ± 0** and -f 1® off the north-west coast of Norway, — the same teni])era- ture as is found in Denmark, and in Wurtemberg in the same month. The warming influence in the winter of the sea and large water areas is- thus seen \-er}- clearly. In addition to the \^xy marked rise of temperature on the northern and arctic coasts already mentioned, we see that the northern- most part of the Gulf of Bothnia has the same temperature as Petrograd and Novgorod, and that the well marked maximum temperature in the White Sea, above — 10^, is somewhat higher than the temperature of Jaroslav, which our chart shows between — lO'' and — 1 1**, and the same as the temperature of ^Moscow. Lakes Ladoga and Onega also exert a clearly perceptible warming influence, ^^'ith regard to Finland and East Carelia, we find that the winter temperature falls eastwards from the Gulf of Bothnia, but exceptions are formed by the rise of temperature o\-er and round the White vSea, and by the modifying influence of the Gulf of Finland and Lakes Ladoga and Onega. If we follow the variations of temperature from south to north, we find that in Fin- land the temperature varies between — 2^ off Aland to — 15*^ in the fells of north-west Lapland, or over an exceedingly wide range. The average tempera- ture of East Carelia and Kola is perceptibly lower than that of Finland, but the \'ariation from south to north is not so great, as the range is from — 9** east of Lake Ladoga to about — 15° on the high plateau of Kola. The variations of temperature between district and district are decidedh" less in the summer than the}- are in the winter. So too are the changes from da}- to day. In the winter, if southerly' or westerly winds prevail, the thermometer may sometimes stand some degrees above zero o\-er the whole of this countr}-, and then suddenly sink, when the wind shifts to a northerly quarter, to — 20* or — 30° or even lower. In the sunmier on the other hand, it is rare for the mean temperature of the twenty- four hours to xa.r\ by more than five or six degrees from the normal mean temperature for the particular time of year.. Yet summer shows the great variation within the twenty-fou'- hours, and this ■iM) 77/. Hoiiieii, Cliniutc. variation is larger, the greater the distance from tlie ocean or other large water area. The nocturnal frosts in the wilds of this country are well known evi- dence of this. If, however, we keej) to the mean temperature of the different seasons, which we have been discussing, the curves for the month of July show a great difference as compared with those of the winter, in that, as is well known, the seas and large water areas now tend to lower the temperature, as they become warm more slowly than the land. Thus we now find, to begin with, that the mainland area of northern Fennoscandia, which forms the cold belt in the winter, is now comi)arati\-ely well warmed, and the tempera- ture falls towards the north, towards the North Sea and the Arctic Ocean, which surround this peninsula from west to north east. Thus, reckoning from the south of Finland and F^a.st Carelia, the temperatiure on the whole falls slowh- but steadily towards the north, and in Scandinavia towards the north- west. This tendency is, however, disturbed by the White Sea, the arms of the Baltic, and the high ridge of Kolen, each of which causes a more or less closed area of low temperature. Striking depressions of temperature are cau-sed by Lake Ladoga and to a lesser extent by Lake Onega, especially in the deep 1)asius in the north of these seas. The dei)ression of temperature caused by the White Sea is also very con- siderable. While the temperature is + 12" in the interior of the Kola Penin- sula, east thereof at Mesen 13.8, and at Archangel 15.2, at the outlet of the White Sea it sinks to 8°. Thus the-isotherms east of the White Sea run towards the north-east, parallel to the coast line, which fact is due to and shows the great increase of temperature landwards in the summer. Similarly, the isotherms on the west coast of the White Sea run towards the north-west. This northerly inclination of the isotherms on the coasts of the White Seals so marked, that the July temperature at some distance from the coast in East Carelia" is nuich the same as that of Finland in the same latitudes, i. e. between the latitudes of 62 and 65 degrees, or perhaps even somewhat higher. The period of observation is, however too short, and the observations themselves are too uncertain, for the isotherms to be regarded as conclusi\-e. If the isotherms of 1 2". 13^ and 14^ are drawn in more detail, as shown in the chart in the Finnish edition of tliis work, it seems as if the July temperature in this northern part of East Carelia and the neighbouring districts of Kola Lapmark were somewhat higher than on the Finnish side of the frontier, but, as already stated, this is still somewhat uncertain. In the south again. Lake Ladoga, and also Onega, cause a fall of temperature, but marked though this is over Lake Ladoga, its effect does not seem to extend far inland, seeing that the mean tempera- FIvXXIA 42 X.). [i. 91 ture inOlonets, Petrosavodsk and P()\-enets for exaniijle, is resi)ectivel_\- 15.9", 15.80 and 16.00. A tew words must now be devoted to the peculiar course of the 1 5" isotherm for the month of July. It starts near Riigen in the south of the Baltic, runs northwards past Osel and Aland towards the coast of Innland between Nystad and Raumo. Thence it goes over the land along the coast up to Simo, in the north, and then turns back again towards the south and south-west, somewhat further from the coast, until it gets near Lappo. There it turns north-etist- wards again through Sotkanio to P^ast Carelia, and then, with a curve south- wards for the White Sea, goes up to Archangel, and so on towards the north- east. The fact that this 15" isotherm for July from the southern Baltic goes so far north, and a little way over the P'innish coast, is due to the land being warmed more than the sea in the summer, while the curious curve southwards towards Lappo, i. e. slight cooling of the area between Simo, Lappo and Sot- kamo may partly be due to the land being here rather higher, and partly also to the mostly uncultivated marshes of this region. Thus the long and narrow loop made by this isotherm from Vasa north up to Simo and back to Lappo embraces a comparatively warmer and better cultivated area between the Gulf of Bothnia on the west and the higher. region of untilled bogs and marshes just mentioned on the east. If, however, we ignore these more local conditions, and look at larger areas, we find that this isotherm shows the same mean tem- perature for July in the northern regions of East Carelia and round Archangel as on Aland and Osel and further south in the Baltic. This must not, however, suggest the belief that the whole summer is equally warm in these localities. The summer and season of \egetation are nuich shorter in Carelia and Archan- gel than on Xland, so that May, June and August are about one degree, Sep- tember and October three and five degrees colder at Archangel than on Aland. The mean temperature, again, of the six months from ]\Iay to October is on the mainland of southern Finland about the same as on Aland, but the summer is somewhat earlier, so that 'May and June are about two degrees and July one degree warmer there than on Aland, while August is a little cooler, and September and October about two degrees colder. I'inally, the fact that the isotherms for the year resemble the winter ones nmch more than those for sunnner, both in direction, and in the variations of temperature from region to region and from sea to land, is due to the fact that the differences of temperature between different districts and regions are nmch greater in the winter than in the summer, and that the "winter" is long, so that the former have more influence than the latter on the annual mean. 02 Til. Honieii. Cliiiuitc- Tlie second great climatic factor, which together \\'\t\\ the temjjerature, exerts a decisive infhience on the vegetation and possibiHties of cultivating a country, is the raiiijall. Unfortunatel}'^ the observations of rainfall ar'^ rather incomplete and un- certain in Finland, and still more so in Hast Carelia. We have therefore to be content with the observations from a few particular places, and will quote here the figures of tbe monthly rainfall for the five places in Hast Carelia from which the observations for the decade 1901 — 10 are complete, or so nearly so that the small gaps can well be filled in, and utilisable means for the period can be obtained. These localities are the vSolovets group of islands in the White Sea, Kem on the western shore of that sea, Uikujarvi and Povenets inland south of Kem, and Rukajiirvi south-west of Kem and on the same latitude as Kajana, whence observations are also quoted for the sake of comparision. With regard to the places in Hast Carelia, there are observations from Kem for three decades, from vSolovets for two, but from the other three only for the decade 1901 — 10. In order to obtain a better comparision between the differ- ent localities, we shall therefore only quote the observations for this decade. This decade also furnished the best observations for the places in which older ones exist. For the sake of comparision we also give the obser\-ations from Kajana in Finland for the same period, and these figures also correspond fairly well with those for the longer period of thirty years between 1866 and 1915, for which there are complete observations, except that, in the decade taken, the months of h'ebruar}-, June and August show about ten millimetres greater rainfall than in the longer period. This is shown in the data from Finland given subsequently. The animal total for the decade is also more than thirty millimetres greater than that for the thirty years period. The results are as follows. Monthly Precipihition during I lie years igoi — igio at five places in East Carelia and at Kajana in Finland, shoxi)n in mill imei res: ^ , 5 X C A Solovets Kem rikuiarvi Povenet.s Kukajarvi Kaiana 16 21 15 24 11 47 16 19 15 26 12 43 14 16 13 21 11 30 22 27 22 27 22 32 26 44 51 63 30 58 68 73 36 m 71 81 36 (>0 64 94 35 64 70 84 36 69 96 100 53 62 61 67 49 53 37 38 36 40 28 49 31 37 30 37 20 42 24 23 20 26 13 40 398 472 468 522 409 637 FHNXIA 42 Xo. 3. 93 For calcukiting the average monthly rain- and snowfall it is well to ha\'e long periods of obserA-ation, for. as is well known, the monthly figures may \ary a good deal from year to year. In the comparision of localities which are not too far distant from one another, however, somewhat shorter periods of observation may still be useful, provided the years of observation are the same. Another difficulty, however, is that the rain-ganges used at Solovets, Kem and Rukajarvi had not got Nipher's wind-funnel, so that the figures are certainly somewhat too small. This does not make much difference in the sum- mer months: it has been proved at the Finnish stations that an addition of 4 ° Q to the figures of water precipitation given by the older raingauges results in the same figures as those gi\-en b}' Nipher's gauges. l*'or snow, the correc- tion has to be greater, and may be as much as 20 ^/q or more, if there is a strong wind. But even if the necessary corrections in the above figures be made for the three places in question, this does not alter the conditions shown bv the said figures, in the first place, that the rainfall of East Carelia for the sea- son October— April is throughout nuich less than in Finland. The difference is greatest for the period Januan.- — March, when the precipitation of F)ast .Carelia is only about half that of Kajana, or of the rest of Finland. It mav be L noted, however, that at Archangel and at Onega in the south-east arm of the \\'hite Sea, the precipitation for the period October— March is substantially ^reater than that for the five places in East Carelia taken here. For October and November it varies between 45 and 50, and for the period December— ]\Iarch between 24 and 37 millimetres. It is chiefly the low winter fall in East Carelia -which makes the annual total so decidedly less than in central and southern Finland. In vSeptember the rainfall is about the same east and west of ^Maan- selka and the frontier. In the uarmer season, Ma}^- August, both East Carelia and P'inland show a phenomenon which I have already demonstrated, as far as Finland is con- cerned, in a previous publication, — namely that the rainfall increases from the coastal regions towards the interior of the country. In F^ast Carelia it increases away from vSolovets and Kem on the White Sea, towards Uikujiirvi and Povenets to the south and towards Rukajarvi and Kajana to the west. If again, Povenets and Uikujiirvi be compared, there may appear to be some inconsistenc}- with what has just been said, in the fact that in spite of Pove- nets' more southerty position and greater distance from the \'\'hite Sea, its rainfall in June and July is less than that of Uikujiirvi, while it is greater in all the other months except Ma>-, when the rainfall of the two places is the same. If further obser\-ations show this to be correct, it may be due to the .influence of Lake Onega, on the northernmost arm of which Povenets is situ- 94 ///. Honien, Climate. ated. This deep and extensive water area gets warm in the summer more slowly than the surrounding land, and therefore at the beginning of the suunner there is ver\- little va])oration from this hdce, and often none at all. When the wind is in the south, this is bound to diminish the rainfall in the regions innnediately to the north. As early as Msly the warming of the land, and the evaporation from the beginnings of vegetation ha\e some effect, and this may explain why the rainfall at Uikujar\-i is then equal to that of Povenets, where the \icinity of Lake Onega retards the increase of rainfall. As the tem- perature rises in June and July, and the vegetation develops, the rainfall in. Uikujiirvi becomes greater than that of Povenets, as already mentioned. On the Finnish side too, in the regions to the north of Lake Ladoga as far as \'art- silii, it seems as if this water diminished the rainfall in the beginning of the summer. — As the Russian meteorological obser\ations were published up to and including the year 1914, I should have been glad to include the readings for the four 3'ears 1911 — 14, in order to obtain a rather longer period of obser- vation, but was forced to be content with the decade 1901 — 10, as there are no obser\-ations from Povenets for 1911, 1912 and the greater part of 1913, while those from other places are also incomplete. It may, however, be mentioned that the year 1914 shows exactly the same relationship between the rainfall of Povenets and Uikujiirvi, as the mean figures for the decade taken. The most important point is, however, that if Povenets be compared with Ruka- jarvi, north-west of Uikujarvi, the same conditions appear as between Povenets and Uiktijarvi, as is also shown by the table. The rainfall all the year round is on the whole rather less in Rukajarvi than in Uikujiirvi, and especially so in the months September — December. All the more, therefore, is it less than in Povenets, which is situated further to the south, except just in the months of June and July, where it is greater in Rukajarvi than in Povenets, although the former lies considerably further north. \\"ith reference to Finland, we quote the results of tlurty years' observa- tions of the rainfall from Mariehamn, on Aland, Helsingfors and Vasa on the Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Bothnia respectively, and Jy\-iiskylii and Ka- jana in the interior of the country. Here we see v^ry clearly the increase of rainfall from the coast towards the interior in the summer months, especially June and July. At other times of the year, the rainfall is greater near the south coast than further inland. On Aland, however, it is unexpectedly small all the year round, and only in the late autumn, October — December, is it larger than in J yviiskylii and Kaj ana. Even, in Vasa, further north, the influence of the sea makes it greater in October and_ November, and to some extent during the winter, than it is further inland.. FlvNNlA 42 No. 3. 95- Monthly Precipitation at Five Places in Finland in the Years i886 — I9i5r shown in Millimetres. ' Place 5 t < '""' i < +j 1 O o . o a; ■ Mariehanin 33 31 33 29 37 35 58 74 51 60 56 49 545 Helsingfors 54 48 48 39 47 48 63 83 71 69 69 65 705 \'a.sa 43 35 35 35 44 49 63 73 65 60 52 43 597 1 Jyvaskyla 41 34 34 31 41 60 69 77 62 55 47 46 597 Kajana 42 33 29 31 38 57 86 87 64 52 43 40 603 The observations from some places in Kola should be added for the sake of coniparision, and in order to complete the data quoted from East Carelia and Finland. There are here practically complete observations for the decade 1901 — 10 from eight spots, namely three lighthouses, Sosnovets, Orlov and Sviatoinos, on the south-east, east and north-east coast of the peninsula, from Teriberka, on a little inlet somewhat to the east of the Kola Fjord, the town of Kola, Vaida-guba on the north-westernmost point of the Rybatchi Penin- sula, Petchenga at the end of the Peisen Fjord, and Imandra, rather to the east of Lake Imandra. The winter observations are certainly rather uncer- tain in these barren, wind-swept stations, especially at the lighthouses on the coast and at Vaida-guba on the Rybatchi Peninsula, in spite of the fact that the raingauges at all these stations have Nipher's wind funnel. In the summer, when the winds are light, the results ought to be more reliable. Monthly Precipitation at Eight Places on the Kola Peninsula for the Years igoi — 10, shown in Millitnetres. ! Place 5 1 — 1 < OJ 3 >— > < a; > So?novets - lighthouse 21 16 16 22 28 43 61 51 35 29 23 16 362 Orlov lighthouse 9 9 8 19- 19 39 59 53 38 15 14 11 292 vSviatoinos *■ lighthouse 33 27 22 18 22 36 56 58 43 23 27 33 401 ' Teriberka 26 23 22 29 32 44 58 63 54 53 41 35 485 \'aida-guba 12 11 9 13 21 33 53 33 37 34 20 19 296 Petchenga 20 24 16 18 23 38 61 47 47 33 37 30 395 Kola 17 27 16 25 32 49. 77 53 47 30 40 31 444 Imandra 21 19 22 29 31 51 67 65 54 41 28 22 450 , •*M5 Tit. Hnmeii, Cliniate. The annual rainfall is here seen t(i be mueh the same a? in northernmost I'^inland and Finnish Lai)land, and here too we see that in the summer months the rainfall increases away from the coast and towards the interior. In this respect, comparision is best made between Vaida-guba and Petcheaga on the one hand, of which the former is on a cape extenchng into the sea, and the latter situated on a fjord, and Teriberka, Kola and Imandra on th ; other. Of these, the first is on a small arm of the sea, Kola at the end of a deep fjord, wliich stretches far into a forest region, and Imandra still further in the in- terior. The difference is greatest in July, when the rainfall of Kola reaches the fairly respectable figure of 77 millimetres. The fact that the summer rainfall of Finland, East Carelia and Kola, re- garded as a geographical whole, thus increases away from all the coastal regioi;? towards the interior of the country, is due to, and in a way proves, the fact that it is the abundant evaporation from the country itself, from its vegetation and especially its forests, which then falls as rain. I have also succeeded in showing in other ways, that the greater part of the summer rainfall of Fin- land comes from water evaporated from the countr}- itself, and the neighbour- ing lands in the east and south, and not from the surrounding sea as is the case in the autumn and winter. It is therefore very important, from the point of view of climate and rainfall during the season of vegetation, that the forests should be cared for and kept in strong growth. This is true of both I'inland and Lapland, and quite equally true of East Carelia and the Kola Peninsula. The fact again that the winter raiuiall is so much less in East Carelia than in Finland is easily explained by the circumstance already mentioned, that the air then gets its moisture from the sea, that is to soy from the seas to the south and south-west of Finland. The moist air from the sea is driven by south- erly and westerly winds in over this country and on towards the east; when it meets the lake plateau, and Maanselkii further on b}' the frontier, it gives off most of its moisture here in Finland as rain; thus tlie amount of water in the air is greatly diminished, and the rainfall of East Carelia thereby decreased, and all the more as the ground here sinks towards the east. Again, it is but little moisture which the ea.sterly and south-easterly winds of winter can bring from the Russian continent, but in the autumn when southerly and easterly ■winds pre\ail, Ladoga, Onega and the \A'hite Sea can supply moisture to East Carelia, where the ground rises towards the west and north. The icinds of I\ast Carelia and Kola are during the autumn and winter, even up to April, preponderatingh" southerly and westerly. From Ma>' to August on the other hand, they are niosth- from the north and north-east, coming in over the land from the Arctic Ocean and the White Sea. In Fin- Botanico-geographical Provinces in Finland, East Carelia and Kola Lapmark. Ab = Regio aboensis Kton = At = Alandia Ks = Ik ^ Isthmus karelicus Ksv = Ka — Karelia australis Le Kb = Karelia borealis Li = Kk = Karelia keretitia Lim = Kl ^-- Karelia Ladogensis Lkem = Kol = Karelia olonetsensis Lmuf; Kon -== Karelia onegeusis Kp Kpoc = Karelia pomorica occidentalis Lt = Kpor = Karelia pomorica orientalis Lv Karelia transonegen&is N Kuusanio Oa Karelia avireusis Ob Lapponia enontekieusis Ok Lapponia inareusis Om Lapponia Iniandrae Sa Lapponia kemensis Sb Lapponia murmanica St Lappouia ponojensis Ta Lapponia tulomeusis Tb Lapponia Varaugae Nj'laudia Ostrobolhuia australis Ostrobothnia borealis Ostrobothnia kajanensis Ostrobothnia media Savonia australis S-Jvouia borealis Satakunta Tavastia australis Tavastia borealis / FENNIA 42 No. 3. 97 land westerly and southerly winds prevail even at this season. The forests of Kola and East Carelia have therefore so much the greater climatic impor- tance, both for those lands and for the whole of Finland, as they form a pro- tection against the cold and therefore less moisture-laden winds from the north- east. This short report on the climatic conditions of East Carelia may be sum- marised by saying that the long winter is more severe than that of corres- ponding latitudes in Finland, and brings less snow. The short summer on the other hand, except in the districts near the coasts, is as warm as, or perhaps even a little warmer than it is in Finland in the same latitude. The rainfall also increases from the coast towards the interior, and there approaches about the same figure as in the interior of Finland. Theodor HOMfeN. 7. Vegetation. The vegetation of East Carelia so strongly recalls that of Finland that from the very beginning of botanico-geographical research in this country (WiRZEN, W. Nylander) that region has been assigned to Finland from a botanical point of view, and the study of its vegetable world has ever since been regarded as a fascinating duty for Finnish students. The final proof of the botanico-geographical union of East Carelia and Finland was furnished in 1871 by J. P. Norrlin, who described the eastern and south-eastern bound- ary of the Finnish natural history world as running first along the river Svir, then along lake Onega, from the northernmost arm of Onega to Uikujarvi, and then along the Uikujoki to the White Sea. He even thought that the north- ern portion of this boundary might be drawn still further east. This belief afterwards received still further support, and the question was decided in 1899 b}- the researches of A. K. Cajander. He held that the boundary ought to be drawn from the upper reaches of the Svir, across the south of Onega, through the more southerly area of the Vodlajoki, north of Kentjarvi and south of Ontojar^'i to near the river Onega, and then run parallel to this river at a distance of ten or twenty kilometres, to the White Sea. On the other hand, Cajander thought that the vSvir valley, with the western and central portions of the area to the north of that valley, ought to be separated from Finland, from a natural history point of view, and botanico-geographically assigned to Russia. The Solovets group of islands was previously assigned to the Finnish area, but more recently has been separated from it. The whole of the territory within this boundary is more or less hilly, 7 98 K- Linkola, X'egetation. has a soil and rock foundation closel}' resembling that of Finland, and bears a \egetation of a purely Finnish character. The forests are of the same kind, chiefly of a moorland type, there are similar, countless swamps, and on the small rocky cliffs which consist chiefly of granite or gneis, and in the thous- ands of lakes and watercourses, large and small, there prevails the same vege- table commflnity as is found in Finland. East and south-east of the above- mentioned boundary on the other hand, it is vain to seek for rocky land, and the corresponding vegetation, e. g. heaths. There we find a vegetation un- known in Finland, esi^ecialh' along the numerous rivers. The traveller there finds spreading meadows beside the rivers, with lush herbs and grass, luxuriant alluvial brushwood and forest, and on the river slopes grove-like copses of man}^ different species, and everj'where plants unknown inFennoscandia, many of which are typical of these regions. The expert easily detects botanico-geographical differences between East Carelia and Finland, chiefly in the flowering plants. Many oriental species occur in East Carelia (i. e. species which occur on calcareous soil or in the con- tinental climate zone), which do not extend to Finland, or have only been found in the eastern parts of this countr}'. In places such species are even abundant, and several of th.Q.m. {Polygonum historta, Lonicera Carulea, etc.) are widely distributed. Some species rare in Finland (such as Rosa acicularis) are common in East Carelia, though as a rule only locally. On the coast of the White Sea, various coastal species appear which are not found on the coast of Finland. Finally it may be mentioned in connection with the vegetation, that quagmires (open calcareous bogs) are found much more abundantly than in Finland. — In view of these differences, East Carelia and the Kola Peninsula have been distinguished as a separate eastern section of natural history Fin- land; the boundan,' follows roughly speaking the political boundary. East Carelia is divided in our botanico-geographical literature into four different botanical provinces. These are Olonets Carelia (abbreviated, Kol.), Onega Carelia, (Kon.) West Pomorian Carelia (Kpoc.) and Kicretti Carelia (Kk.); to these have recently been added the eastern provinces of Trans- Onega Carelia {Kton.) and East Pomorian Carelia, (Kpor.). (For the position and boundaries of these territories, see the appended botanico-geographical map of the Societas Pro P'auna et Flora Fennica). These territories are chiefh- distinguished on floral grounds, and the following pages describe the general features of their vegetation, as far as this can be done, but the published in- formation on the subject is for the most part meagre. 1 . Olonets Carelia previously' encompassed the whole territory from tlie Svir to the Suojunjoki, and is still often so reckoned. It is assigned to Norr- FEXNIA 42 No. 3. 99 lin's zone of deciduous trees, or maple zone, and owing to the good soil of many districts, and its southerly position, it includes more species than any other East Carelian botanical province. (638 phanerogams and ferns.) The species are particularly numerous on the Onega coast, the Wepsian heights north of V'osnessenje and the neighbourhood of Petrosavodsk being especially rich in rare plants. The more western part of this province is unfortunately still but little investigated, but certainh* produces fewer species. It is characteristic of the vegetation of Olonets Carelia that rock and water plants form a com- paratively small proportion of the whole; that in many places forest and bog plant types are found over fairly extended areas; and that owing to the compa- rati\'ely numerous population, plants of cultivation (on meadows and plough- land) are fairly general. But as a result of the more numerous and older set- tlements, and the burn-beating that was quite recently still general, the forests are relativeh' worse preserved than in the rest of East Carelia, and over fairly extensive areas consist predominantly of deciduous trees. Fir and pine forests as well as mixed forests, are, however, found in several regions, and are even abundant. — In the Svir vallej', and in some districts north of it, the whole landscape consists of plains or (on the middle reaches of the Svir) of devonian hills. As already stated, this region is no longer assigned to natural history Finland, and it shows many features which are characteristic of the north Russian botanical province, such as the absence or great scarcity of rock and lake vegetation, and the presence of alluvial meadows (on the livinajoki) and bushy groves on the river slopes, (though these are certainly comparatively undeveloped). The region round the mouths of the Svir and part of the interior has a bald and sterile character. 2. Onega Carelia, Ijdng to the north of the previous province and stret- ching right up to Seesjarvi, belongs to Norrlin's lime zone. The province in- cludes two clearly distinguished parts; the western, to wliich may also conveni- ently be assigned the parish of Suojarvi and south-eastern Ilomants in Fin- land, and the eastern. The western part is a barren region producing few spe- cies, where the moorland forests, chiefly consisting of pines, are in general very well preserved. The thinly peopled, in places almost plain-like wilder- ness, (Norrlin calls it the »territory of peatbogs and moors») is covered by nu- merous and often extensive marshes and peat bogs, among which fir-bearing bogs also abound. The fertile soil and in places favourable climate of the east- erti part have made it one of the pearls of our natural history territory'. The flora is nearly everywhere abundant (the number of species found in this region is 615, or more than in any botanical province of Finland on the same latitude), and there are various oriental plants of a rare kind. The vegetation 100 K. Li ti kola, \'egetation. is luxuriant, especially in the south and central parts. The most luxuriant species often predominate in the forests, and beautiful groves are therefore of frequent occurrence. Here are numerous mixed forests, dominated by the pine or fir or often by the birch or aspen, which only about a decade ago were still for the most part dense, and lofty. Deciduous forest is also found to no small extent, especially on the formerlj' burn-beaten land belonging to the vil- lages. The abundance of aspen in this region must be specially noted. A num- ber of pine-bearing heaths are here found. Fertile quagmires and moist, quag- mire-like meadows are very common and extensive. Bog-cultivation may in time produce here excellent cultivated land. The population is dense, espec- ially on the coast of Onega; ploughlands and grassy fields or burn-beaten slopes add still further to the attraction of this varied landscape with its many lakes. 3. Western Pomorian Carelia stretches from the south of Seesjarvi to the neighbourhood of Kuittijarvi and Tuoppajarvi. It belongs to the north Fin- nish zone of vegetation, and is in its vegetable life fairly closely connected with the western part of the preceding province. The most characteristic features of the greater part of the landscape are thus barrenness and unifor- mity. Dry pine forests which abound in lichen, especially in the north, and meagre marshes and peat bogs alternate with more or less barren fir-bearing bogs. The forests are mostly well preserved, thanks to the scanty population and the absence of free-rights of ownership in the land, large timber is found everywhere except in the neighbourhood of the villages, and in several places even virgin forest. Almost the sole representatives of more fertile and pro- ductive regions are the districts west and north-west of Seesjarvi, the Kello- vaara region, and the region south of the middle reaches of the Kem river, which last is relatively thickly populated, and marked by its numerous and fertile quagmires. The soil on the White Sea coast is also comparatively fer- tile, consisting largely of cla}-; characteristic here are the extensive shore mea- dows, which at low tide are left dry in stretches several kilometres long. Se- veral rare plants occur on tliis coast. On the Kemjoki and also in places on the Uikujoki, there are extensive fields of sedge, as well as leaf y copses by the torrents, but generally speaking the boundless, barren swamps begin quite close to the rivers. — With regard to cultivated vegetation, it may be noted that the northern limit of oats falls witliin this area. It extends as far as the neighbourhood of Uhtua and Uskela, where oats are grown in a number of places, though but sparely. It is exceedingly probable that their cultivation could be improved by the choice of suitable varieties. — The number of phane- rogams and ferns known in this province is 518. 4. Trans-Onega Carelia and Eastern Pomorian Carelia have for the most FKNNIA 42 No. 3. 101 part never been specially investigated from the point of view of vegetation, so that our knowledge thereof is exceedingly small. The aoudi'e^'n portion' ct the former province is practically the only region here which has been exami- ned, and it forms a transition region to the calcareous Russian tract, which is f airl}' rich in species and in places even thickly populated. The places which have been examined in the rest of the region, and probably the whole area, are barren and monotonous, consisting of an almost uninhabited wilderness, in which the predominant features are pine or fir forest, or birch forest which has grown up after burn-beating, with extensive, open swamps. These last are calculated to cover two-thirds of the whole surface. Onl}' along the rivers do we find more fruitful and productive tracts. On the coast of the White Sea, however, the vegetable life is more varied, and it seems to be in the main of the same kind as on the Pomorian coast. 5. Kieretti Carelia is the most northerly of the botanical provinces of East Carelia, and stretches from the West Pomorian province to the south- west frontier of the Kola Peninsula, in the neighbourhood of Kandalaks. Here the arctic scener}' begins to be clearly noticeable. The flora consists of com- paratively few species, onh^ 406 phanerogams and ferns, and includes a num- ber of arctic plants. The most southerly fells are in the neighbourhood of Paa- jarvi; several more important heights are found further north, near the fron- tier of the Kola Peninsula. In the forests and swamps, which are if possible even more prevalent here than in the wildernesses further south, the north Finnish forest and peat bog species are abundantly represented. It should be noted that the forests are not onh- obviously well preserved, but that no small proportion of them in the northernmost parts of the province and on the coast of the White Sea, are clearly of a really strong -growing character. The fir, which is the prevailing tree in these regions, is tall and stately. The districts where the forests are luxuriant also show a very abundant flora. The region of the Oulankajoki, on the boundary of Kuusamo, and several places on the coast of the White Sea are specially noted for their rare plants. Otherwise, this province, the scanty population of which lives chiefly in the large fishing villages on the coast, has been very defectively investigated. This is especially true of the extensive central area, and the wilds in the south-east, wliich have not yet been visited by any botanist. — Among cultivated plants, this pro- vince produces barley, rye, potatoes and turnips. Rye is here approaching its northern limit, and its cultivation is very insignificant, especially in the north- ern and eastern portions of the province. The botanico-geographical maps in the chapter on agriculture supplement the foregoing in a number of respects. K. lylNKOI^A. 102 J. A. Palniev, The Animal Kingdom. 8. The Animal Kingdom. The fauna of East Carelia is in essence the same as that of Finland. As extensive fells and coastal tundras only occur in the northernmost portion, the fell species characteristic of Lapland are not at home here. Yet both the lemming and the Arctic fox visit this region in their wanderings, and the birds of the fells, such as the snow bunting, shore-lark, rough-legged buzzard etc., annually fly across. The fauna of central and southern East Carelia, again, differs from that of the corresponding parts of Finland, on the one hand in the occurrence of a number of oriental species, and on the other in that the species common to botli countries vary in their frequency and distribution. There are very few species which appear in our natural history area as outposts from the east, and these only occur on its outermost edge — Emheriza aureola, Muscicapa parva, a couple of sedgewarblers and a lizard, Lacerta agilis — and these are not numerous, i>ut stand so to speak on the threshhold of the territory. On the other hand, other species have made themselves more at home in East Carelia, and both there and far into Finland represent the oriental element in the fauna. The most notable of these are the bittern, woodcock, nightingale, golden oriole, linnet, little gull and evening falcon. Some others have penetrated northwards in small numbers as far as Keret- Carelia, namely the fh'ing squirrel, mink, birch- mouse, lesser shrew, and further north the smew. It may also be mentioned that during recent decades some Carelian species have clearly spread into Finland, and a considerable distance to the west, nameh' the German hare, polecat and rustic bunting. Several oriental species, as well as a number of central European, have been able to spread further north in Finland than they have done in East Carelia. This is chiefly due to the fact that they have benefited by the pro- gress of agriculture in recent centuries. Originally forests and swamps were predominant in both countries. But burn-beating and tree-cutting first opened glades, where the cattle fed, so that the glades graduall}' became natural meadows; then these were converted into ploughlands, which finally formed fairly continuous fields of cultivation. Similar spots in central Europe were inhabited by a number of species which have since spread to this country. The butcher-bird, nightjar, honey buzzard, lapwing, laugliing gull, a number of water birds, the mole and hedge- hog probably among mammals, as well as the slow-worm and grass snake, have not yet attained any great distribution in East Carelia. Other species meet with obstacles in Onega Carelia (as also in Finland, in Maanselka and Suomenselka); this is the case with with the wood-mouse, starling, wryneck, FKNNIA 42 No. 3. 103 jay, stock-dove, partridge, toad, and newt. Others again have already suc- ceeded in reaching parts of the Kenijoki area, namely four warblers, {Sylvia salicaria, cinerea, ciirruca and Phylloscopus rufus), the robin, great tit, jack- daw, woodpecker, great curlew, woodcock, hobby, kestrel, peregrine, buzzard and sparrow-hawk. Other species again have advanced as far as Keret-Ca- relia, near Kandalaks; here we find the badger, water vole, bullfinch, yellow- hammer, siskin, chaffinch, lark, swallow, great black wood pecker, corncrake, seamew, viper, and one species of bat. In Finland these species have spread considerably further north. Those which extend as far as Lapmark have al- ready been named in the descriptiori of the Kola territory'. The change of scenery caused by the spread of cultivation is at the same time unfavourable and even fatal to other animals. When the virgin forest is thinned and then devastated, when forest marshes and swamps are drained, thickets cleared, and the solitude is replaced b}^ trappers and hunters who grow ever more zealous and better equipped — then the beasts of the prime- val wilderness are robbed of their haunts; they cannot stand their ground, but are forced to leave that region. In Finland various species have thus been rery hard pressed, though least in the regions round Suomenselka, and up to now this has been less the case in East Carelia. Thus several more or less arctic animals still flourish in the south of the latter country, and are not too much embarrassed by the changes of conditions; for example the great grey shrike, »Siberian jay, water-ouzel, Bohemian wax- wing, pinegrosbeak, three-toed wood-pecker, golden plover and se\-eral other waders, the pintail and wigeon. The smaller beasts of pre^^ such as the ermine and the small weasel, are abundant, and the marten, otter, lynx and occasion- ally the wolf are also fairly abundant. Forest birds which have already be- come here in Finland so rare that they ought to be protected (the capercailzie and hazel-hen) are still so plentiful in East Carelia, that it is a regular occupa- tion to hunt them. Water birds which flourish between Ladoga and Onega include the forest goose and the wild swan; indeed the latter is still more plenti- ful further to the north as there it is almost held sacred. In Finland, a few still remain in the interior of Ostrobothnia, but they are tolerably plentiful only in Lapmark. Recentl}^ however, the chase has become a greater danger to the native wild animals in East Carelia, at the same time as the wildernesses are being brought under cultivation. Still, however, the golden eagle is no rarity, nor in several places the mountain owl. The bear, which is much persecuted here in Finland, is also a favourite spoil of the East Carelian hunter, but is neverthe- less fairly well at home, and still more plentiful in the north. The elk and 104 J- A- Palmen, The Animal Kingdom. wild reindeer still wander here, though here too the}', like the domestic rein- deer, are the prey of the glutton and the wolf. Finally, the beaver also used to have colonies in East Carelia, but it is probably already some decades since it became extinct. Thus, a comparision of the animal kingdoms of Finnish and Russian Ca- relia shows, at least as far as terrestial animals are concerned, that the areas within which they are found, or are comparatively plentiful, are in no way bounded by the parallels of latitude, but in the case of a large number of species, cut across these very sharply. To some extent the boundaries run practically in a direction from north-west to south-east, but with many local variations. The reason is not, as in the case of the oriental species, that they are still engaged in migrating from their original homes, but that in the culti- vated regions nature has been devastated, or at least so tended as to drive out a number of species. In course of time this also leads to a danger to ourselves. In Kuolajarvi there is no longer sufficient winter pasture for the dom^estic reindeer. Fir felling is so injurious that it can scarce!}' be allowed, for the sake of lichen pas- ture, and fencing must be put up, as otherwise the reindeer make their way eastwards to Keret-Carelia. So too, the elk moves eastwards for the winter, as the snow is not so deep in those regions. The stalkers then follow its tracks. The people also cross the frontier eastwards for the sake of larger bags of ptarmigan and other forest birds, much to the detriment of the population on the other side. It is easy to see that in time to come such expeditions may give rise to conflicts, which will be more and more difficult to settle, the less opportunity the neighbours have of coming to agreement in amity. There seems already to be a certain tension with regard to the fishing, and this is likely to increase. It would be better to forestall the danger. Finally with regard to sea mammals and birds on the coast of East Carelia, it cannot be expected that the rich fauna of the Arctic coast should be found in the remote waters which stretch in here, and are withdrawn from the cli- matic influence of the Gulf Stream. The fauna of the White Sea consists of fewer species. Practically the dnh' one of the arctic whales to visit this sea is the porpoise. Among seals, the Greenland seal, bearded seal, and common seal only come as casual visitors in small numbers, but there are large num- bers of gray seal and common British seal. Thus, the species which are found on our Finnish coasts are also the ones which flourish best there. Special interest attaches to the common British seal. Its home is in the White Sea, but it also lives in various fresh water lakes, such as Onega, Ladoga and Saima. It is likewise found in the Gulf of Finland, the Gulf of Bothnia and the Bal- FEXNIA 42 No. 3. 105 tic, but does not flourish on the west coast of Scandinavia. Thus the fresh- water common British seal still survives along the prehistoric channel of communication between the Arctic Ocean and the Baltic. It thus forms a memorial handed down, and ought, as a survival, to be piously preserved in the inland lakes, rather than extirpated by the offer of rewards for its des- truction. On the coast of East Carelia there are also the same kinds of birds as on the Finnish coast, but generally in larger numbers. The}' are not, however, so abundant as up on the Arctic coast, where food is more plentiful. Birds which breed on the Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Bothnia include the sea eagle, osprey, oyster-catcher, turnstone, redbilled tern, eider duck, greater black- backed gull, herring gull, skua, guillemot and razorbill. In the autumn the \\'hite Sea is also visited by large numbers of birds of passage from Arctic Russia, which do not go far inland. These include the brent goose, white fronted goose, king eider, ivory gull and arctic wader, as well as a large num- ber of long-tailed duck,, and other species. When these flocks reach the White Sea, the cul-de-sac of the basin of the Arctic Ocean, they are practically forced to go further, and now have to go over land. Small flocks of them go from Kandalaks over northern East Carelia to the northern part of the Gulf of Bothnia, but most of them go in large flocks over Onega, the southern part of East Carelia, Ladoga and the Carelian Isthmus. Then in the Gulf of Fin- land they feel rather more at home, and still more so in the Baltic. Thus they follow the prehistoric water system already described, where nature still shows them suitable resting places. The animal kingdom, and indeed one may say all nature, is clearly less disturbed b}- mankind in East Carelia than is now the case in Finland. The hoary forest king may here enjoy his winter rest in comparative tranquillity, and slake liis thirst in summer with the ripe berries of the fen. Here still walk the wild reindeer and the elk, and that although the wolf has free play, while the glutton and the Ijmx still follow the chase. The capercailzie still plays quite at home in the primeval forest, flocks of forest geese still feed on the edge of the morass, and the swan rests calmly on her nest on the watery sur- face of the fen; — and all the time the king of the air, the eagle, circles above, and his vassals cruise below in search of prey. Thus the equlibrium and peace of nature is not disturbed by the struggle between its own creatures, but bj- human civilisation. Here in East Carelia the remains of our Finnish Kalevala were saved be- fore it was too late. Here live still the remains of Finnish primeval nature, such as it grew in strength when the land arose above the waves. East Carelia 106 A', i". Karjahnnev. Thf History of the Cartlians. shows us Finns how our own country looked in its youth, — it may be only a few centuries ago. Here the opportunity still offers for saving specimens from threatened destruction. They can be drawn from different latitudes and dif- ferent types of landscape. Shall we know how to accept this invitation from the frontier regions of our natural-history territory? Or will its animal world and its flora suffer the same fate as the beaver, the fate which now threatens the wild reindeer in our country, and has already overtaken our primeval forests? Or shall we be sufficiently energetic to take the enlightened action of a civilised people, proclaim the inviolability of life on a large scale, and thus save large samples from the devastating effects of civilisation itself? vShould we not thus indem- nify our own generation against the future reproach, that in the critical mo- ment we failed in our duty to the natural life of our fatherland? J. A. Palm EN. II. THE POPULATION, ITS HISTORY, LANGUAGE AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS. I. The History of the Carelians. The pressure of the Slavs who pushed their way on from the Carpathians has had a very important influence on the so-called Baltic Finns, the West Finnish tribes which settled in the regions south of the Gulf of Finland in the beginning of our era. This pressure was especialh' fateful for the Carelians. It is evident that as early as about the fifth century of our era their forefathers had extended their settlements and hunting grounds to the neighbourhood of Lakes Ladoga and Onega, and were graduall}- spreading from this centre, on the one side towards the north-east, as far as the lower reaches of the mights- river Dvina and the coast of the White Sea, and on the other side towards the northywest, along the water courses that fall into Lake Ladoga, to Fin- nish Carelia, to Savolaks, even to Ostrobothnia, and to what was called Kvicn- land. Thus the magnificent solitudes with their wealth of furred animals, which had previously for the most part been owned b}' the Lapps, fell into the hands of the Carelians. Their natural riches caused even these distant tracts to be drawn into the sphere of the trade relations wliich more southern countries maintained with northern Russia, the memory of which is preserved both in the literature of the Scandinavian sagas and in old Russian FEXXIA 42 Xo. 3. 107 chronicles. But while trade served to raise the standard of life and increase the prosperit\' of the people, it also led to the ruin of the national, indepen- dent social life which had arisen among this widely scattered Carelian folk. It is eas}- to understand that such a fate could not be averted, when we remember that the Carelians had to defend their independence against three peoples which had reached a higher stage of civilisation than themselves. The desire for conquest and plunder led the Russians, or to be more exact, led enterprising men from the commercial republic of Novgorod on the Ilmen Lake, to tn,- to get possession of the regions of northern Russia, with their wealth of forests and waters. We do not know when they first came into di- rect contact with the Carelians, but it is probable that the latter had their part in the foundation of the Russian Empire, since the town of Ladoga, called in the northern legends Aldeigjoborg, which is mentioned (about 860 A. D. according to the chronicle) as Rmik's first residence, was founded in the south- west corner of the Carelian territor}-, or in its immediate vicinit\-. It is natural for geographical reasons that Ladoga Carelia, i. e. the regions between Lakes Ladoga and Onega, and the Carelian" Isthmus, should be the first parts of Carelia to enter into relations with Novgorod. The nature of these relations is shown by the fact that Olonets had to pa}- tribute as early as 1 137, though this was probably exceptional, and that in 1 143 the Carelians, then first called '>Korela» in the Russian records, supported the people of Novgorod in a war against some tribe of »Jams» i. e. Tavasts. So also in 1 149 they supported the Novgorodians against the princes of Suzdal, and in 1227 Prince Jaroslav Vsevolodovitch is said to have sent priests to the CareUans, »practically all» of whom received baptism. These statements must not, however, be taken as meaning that the Carelians had already lost their independence and submit- ted to the Novgorodians. The Ladoga Carelians are not mentioned at all in a document of 1265 which gives a list of the peoples subject to Novgorod, and as late as the year 1270 the merchants of Gothland were informed that if the Gothlanders suffered any injur>^ on trading journeys in Carelia, the people of Novgorod »had nothing to do with it, — in other words, commands from Novgorod had not yet any effect in Carelia. Nevertheless the people of Novgo- rod were constantly trying to attain Such command. Severe struggles between Carelians and Novgorodians occurred repeatedly (e. g. in 1278 and 1314), and in these fights it was usually the former who were defeated. Kexholm (»Karjalan linna», »the Carelians' castle», in Russian often called Korela) was established to defend the Ladoga tract, but in the beginning of the fourteenth century this fortified place fell into the hands of Novgorod. In 1333 Ladoga- Carelia was bestowed on the son of a Lithuanian prince, Narimont. The Ca- 108 K. F. Karjalaincn, The History of the Carehans. relians' attempt to free themselves from this dependent position did not suc- ceed. While the Novgorodians were trying to extend their power in Ladoga Care- lia, the}' also tried to get a foothold in the more northerly portion of the Care- lian territory. The inhabitants of these regions, living on the other side of the extensive forest area north-east of Lake Onega, are called in the Russian chronicles »the Tchuds beyond the forest belt». The people of Novgorod wan- ted to reach the Carelian territor}' lying between the river Dvina and the coasts of the White Sea. The first journey to this Zavolotchia (»land beyond the forest belt>>) mentioned in the annals, took place in 1032, but apparently this expedition did not penetrate Carelian territory, for the neighbourhood of the river Vytchegda is mentioned as the goal. A saltworks on the coast of the W^hite Sea, which undoubtedh- was on Carelian land, is mentioned in 1 137 among places from which the Novgorodians levied tribute; the Carelians living there had certainly been subjected to visits from the Novgorodians by that time, and probabl}' earlier. Zavolotchia defended itself for a considerable time, however, and clearly with stubbornness and success. Norwegian records say that the Biarmians on the Dvina had a king of their own as late as 1216. Nevertheless, an official Russian document of 1265 mentions among terri- tory which belonged to Novgorod, Zavolotchia, Kolo-Perm and Ter, — that is to say, the Carelians' land in the north, together with the Kola and Ter territories. But in 1323, again, Novgorod undertook a military' expedition to Zavolotchia, and in 1342 a Novgorodian force suffered a defeat there. Th^^se statements in Russian documents put it beyond all doubt that the taxation of the Carelians, which is so often mentioned in the records, only consisted in the exaction of military tribute, which the people was forced to pay when the exacter had a sufficienth' large militarj- force at his back. The earliest statements that the Dvina Carelians took part as allies in the military expedi- tions undertaken by the people of Novgorod ma}' also be taken as referring to isolated instances. At the same time, however, a Russian governor and Russian boyars are mentioned in Archangel as early as 1327. Generally speak- ing, it may be taken that the authority of Novgorod was established in north- ern Carelian towards the second half of the fourteenth century. The Novgo- rodians had still to endure severe fighting in the regions of the Dvina in the years 1364 — 5, but the Carelians were at a disadvantage, and from about the year 1400 Zavolotchian Carelia may be regarded as subject to Novgorod. The latter state was, however, not long to enjoy in peace the fruits of victory. As early as the beginning of the thirteenth century the Rostoff Russians in Ustyuk and the Muscovites, having gradually established their power, had by peace- FKKNIA 42 No. 3. 109 ful means or by force, begun to exploit the riches in Zavolotchia. After many struggles with varying success, Moscow subdued Great Novgorod itself, and became master of the republic and its dependencies. Seeing that Ladoga Carelia and Dvina Carelia had come under the suve- rainty of Novgorod, the Carelians who had penetrated furthest up into the north were also recognised to owe tribute to the Novgorodians, for example in the frontier treaty of 1251 between Norway and Novgorod. The Carelians were also menaced by their western neighbours, the Norwe- gians and Swedes as well as by tlie people of Novgorod. The Norwegians came into contact with the Carelians both in Zavolotchia and on their own frontiers, in the northern Lapp regions. In the Scandina- vian sagas the inhabitants of the former territory are called Biarmians (Beor- mas), a name which included, however, all the Finnish tribes in northernmost Russia, as far as they were known to Scandinavia. The name comes from the same root as the present word »perm» (Finnish perma). In the Russian chro- nicles the forms peremj and permj occur in old place-names, e. g. Great Permj, and Kolo-Permj. The Norwegians made expeditions to the land of the Biar- mians extending over a very long period, from the end of the ninth century until about 1220. The Norwegian Ottar is mentioned in Alfred the Great's famous geography as the first who visited that country. He sailed from Haloga- land in the 3-ear 874 along the coast of Kola, probably to the mouth of the Dvina, where he found inhabited and well cultivated regions. Subsequently the Norwegians made many trading expeditions thither, of which the most famous is that undertaken by Thorer Hund and his following in 1026. After the Norwegians had concluded their bargains, they broke the commercial peace they had made, and before returning home plundered the wealthy burial ground of the Biarmians, with the great treasures of the famous god Jomali. The last expedition to Biarmaland which is recorded was in 1222, andb}' deg- rees even the name of the Biarmians fell into oblivion. In the frontier treaty made between Norway and Novgorod in 1326 the Russian name »Zavolok» is used instead. The Norwegians had also come into conflict with Carelians on their own frontier, especially in the north Finnish territories of Finmark and Kola Lap- mark. The cause of these conflicts was the protracted rivalry for the mastery of the Lapps, who were weak, it is true, but possessed valuable natural resour- ces, as well as the rather successful attempt of the Carelians to extend and establish their power among the Kvaens in northern Finland, in close proxi- mity to Sweden and Norway. As early as the year 874 it is stated that Carelians, apparently from Ladoga Carelia, had come to trade with the Kvaens and to 110 A'. F. Karjalatnen, The History of the Carehans. plunder at the same time, This expedition, however, came to an unfortunate end, as the Norwegians came to the assistance of the »king» of the Kva^ns. About 1300 the CareHans plundered Finmark, several Lapp districts and also Kvoenland. A plundering expedition of 1278 ended by the Norwegian liege- man being taken prisoner b)- the CareHans, after thirty-five of his men had fallen. The CareHans again invaded the country in 1302 but their reception was such that they afterwards remained fairly quiet for nearly twenty years, until the year 1319. The Norwegians naturally did not fail to avenge these expeditions, so that there was an almost unbroken state of war in the frontier districts, until in 1326 a fairly binding agreement was made between Norway and Novgorod. Tliis treaty provided that the merchants of both parties were to have the right to visit the territory of the other party without hindrance, gave both parties the right to levy tribute from their own Lapps in the area between the Malonger Fjord and the Meljoki, and also regulated for a time the relations between the Norwegians and the CareHans. The last-named were clearly reckoned as tributaries of Novgorod. More important to the CareHans than these struggles wth Norway, was the war with Sweden, especially in Ladoga Carelia. Erik Vidfamne, who lived in the seventh century, is said to- have made an expedition to »Gardariki» (i. e. Russia) across »K3TJalabotn», apparently the innermost pait of the Gulf of Finland. In revenge for this and similar \^iking expeditions, the Finnish tribes made an attack on the Swedish mainland; one such return visit, totheMaelar district, is mentioned in 1 187, when the CareHans are said to liave destroyed the town of Sigtuna. The struggles were the more severe and violent, as Nov- gorod stood behind and usually supported the CareHans in their attacks on the Swedes, not wishing to leave room or opportunity for a new and dangerous competitor for the power in the west. The encounters here became all the more menacing when Sweden had subdued Finland Proper and Tavastland,. and brought them under the influence of the Roman Catholic Church. Often, for example in 1191, 1198, 1228 and 1240, the struggle degenerated into a wild war of extermination. A Bull of Pope Alexander IV. (1256 or 1257) says that the »enemies of Christ», the CareHans, killed the Christians, burned villages and devastated fields, desecrated holy places, and carried off baptised child- ren to be brought up in heathendom and sold as slaves. A Swedish official document gives the following account; — »The heathen CareHans have in former times committed munder, pillage and countless cruelties, without respect for sex, estate or age. They have gone so far as to cut out the heart and intestines of those who lell alive into their hands, and they have ij every way mishandled sailors on the Baltic, both our own and those of other count- FKXXIA 42 No. 3. Ill lies. Therefore, out of compai-sion for the sufferings of these unfortunates and in order to propagate the CathoHc doctrine, we have converted them to Christi- anity, when, by the grace of God, we had conquered them. We have also, with the help of a large army and at enormous expense, built the castle of Viborg, to the glory of God and the holy Virgin, in order to protect our land and to secure safet}^ and peacf for seafarers. » The last-named measure, the founda- tion of Viborg castle during the crusade of Tyrgilr Knutsson (1293), was neces- sar\- for the maintenance of peace and for the establishment of the Swedish rule in Carelia. The fortress of Landskrona was built on the Neva for the same purpose in 1299 or 1300, but was, however, soon afterwards destroyed by the Novgorodians. In spite of all their efforts, the Swedes do not seem to have succeeded in gaining much support from the Carelians. It is related that in 1314 a Carelian force which was defending Kexholm against Novgorod asked help of Viborg, but the assistance afforded by the Swedish garrison there was insufficient to save the Carelian fortress from falling into the hands of the Nov- gorodians. The foundation of Swedish power at Viborg made Ladoga Carelia an apple of discord between the two states which caused centuries of struggles. The peace of Noteborg (1323) was the first interlude in these struggles, and an important turning point in the history- of the Carelians. By this peace the three districts of Savo, Jaaski and A^^rapaa were accorded to Sweden, while the main part of the Carelian territorj', and the out-lying lands, including northern Finland, the so-called Lappish waste, was recognised as belonging to Novgorod. Thus Carelia was cleft in two, and both halves were subject to foreign powers. The frontier fixed by the Peace of Noteborg did not last long. As the Swedes consolidated their power in Finland they began to extend their territory, at first by peaceful methods. The}' encouraged the formation of new settlements, on the other side of the frontier, and propagated the Roman Catholic faith there, all with the object of removing their frontier further to the east and north-east, especially in northern Finland. This fact, together with the inborn inclination of the population for pillage, led to constant frontier feuds and plundering expeditions towards the end of the fourteenth and beginning of the fifteenth centuries. In these the agressor was.generall}'to be found among the Carelians on the other side of the frontier or among the Novgorodians, who were generally very ready to help them. Thus the Carelians took part in a plundering expedition to the Kajana district in 1431; in 1444—5 they in- vaded Norway, when the Norwegians and Swedes replied with a plundering expedition in Keni Carelia; a Carelian and Russian force made a wild onslaught 112 K. F. Karjalainen, The History of the CareHans. on Ostrobothnia in 1477 — 8, and during the »Gieat Russian War» of 1495 — 97 terrible havoc was wrought by both sides in the frontier areas from Viborg right up to Ostrobothnia. The devastation was so complete that, as the rhymed chronicle says; »Carelia, Savolaks and half Tavastland lie waste, Nobody now lives there, Neither dog, cock nor cow, Who can rest there, The land lies waste for more than eighty miles». The fighting had taken on a more intense and violent character in the last decades of the fifteenth century, as the Grand Duke of Moscow, an aggressive and ambitious city, was now the deciding force in Russia. He had in 1478 united Novgorod to his dominion. Moreo\^er, the Carelians on the White Sea had now an active source of agitation and a leader in the Solovets monas- tery on the island of Solka, wlaich came to be of decisive importance, especially in the later conflicts. Sweden was torn by internal dissensions, which had a disastrous effect in the crippling and weakening of the defence of Finland. Matters did not improve in this respect until the house of \"asa came to the throne. During the reign of Gustavus Vasa the frontier fighting was of slight impor- tance. Even the official war which came to an end in 1557 left no very deep marks, although the land on both sides of the frontier was devastated. The position became more difficult when war with Russia broke out again under John III. The Swedes waged war in soutb-east Finland, devastated territory in Ladoga Carelia, and in 1581 even penetrated far into Olonets Carelia, up to the river Svir. Kexholm was taken in 1 580, and this victory led John to regard all Olonets, Kem Carelia and the Kola Peninsula as Swedish possessions, be- cause they were said to have belonged of old to the fiefs of Kexholm castle. The eastern frontier of Finland would thus be that given by older writers, e. g. Bureiis, namely, the Svir, Lake Onega, Uikujar\-i, the Uikujoki, the Wliite Sea and the Arctic Ocean. On this frontier the narrow isthmus of ]\Iaanselka forms the only connecting bridge to Russia. ]Many destructi\-e »wars of pillage>> flamed up between Finland and Kem Carelia, between 1570 and 1580, and again after 1590. In these Erik Kranck, Juho Vesaineii, Talvi Kauppinen and others led guerilla bands which ravaged from the northernmost bay of the White Sea down to Suma, laying waste inhabited regions, fishing stations, salt-works, etc., both on the coast of the White Sea, and along the course of the Kemjoki. The Carelians and Russians did not fail to reply; the neighbour- hood of Oulu Lake, Liminka and the Siikajoki expeiienced their cruelty. The guerilla warfare did not even cease after the peace of Tiiyssinii (1595), when Kexholm was restored to Russia, the frontier being drawn further north, over Siiaminki, Nilsia, Kuusamo and Inari to the Varanger Fjord. FHXXIA 42 No. 3. 113 The war of Charles IX. also produced important conflicts on the Carelian frontier. In 1610 there was an unsuccessful expedition to Kola, and one the next spring along the southern arm of the Kemjoki to the White Sea, the Carelians replying during the same sunmier by ravaging the country round Oulu lake. The desire for peace seems, however, to have been strong in Ostro- bothnia, for even while the war was still in progress steps were taken for restor- ing peace on the frontier, which came into effect in 1614. Hostilities did not completel}' cease, however, until the Peace of Stolbova in 1617, when the fron- tier of Finland was fixed very much as it is today, on a line which follows the ridges of the Maanselka for a long part of its extent. The Peace of Stolbovo closed the second period of the history of the Care- lian people, a period of about three centuries wliich had not only externally thvided into two the people most nearly related to us, but also tended to sow the seeds of discord among that people, and to deepen national contrasts. During this period the brother on the western side of the political frontier had become »Swedish», and the brother on the eastern side had become »Rus- sian». Henceforth the line between these two Carelian lands became more and more noticeable in the population. During the first century after the Peace of Stolbovo in particular, a large part of the strictly Carelian popula- tion, which was of the Greek Catholic faith, numbering several thousand souls, migrated from the regions subject to Sweden, where it was at times verN' difficult for the peasants to gain a livelihood and repeated attempts were made to convert the peasantry to the lyUtheran faith, over to the Russian side of the frontier, even as far as the provinces of Tver and Novgorod. The remainder gradually amalgamated with the settlers who immigrated from the west, from Savolaks principally, but also from Tavastland and Ostrobothnia. Carelians proper only remain in a few inaccessible parishes of easternmost Finland, — Salmi, Suistamo, Suojar^-i and Impilahti; here the language closely resembles that of the present Olonets Carelians. It was onh' after this migra- tion that Carelia east of the frontier, »East Carelia» became stabilised as a unity, the social structure of which differs noticeably" from that on the Fin- nish side. Previously to the Peace of Stolbovo, there had also been important changes on the other Carelian frontiers. lyong before, under pressure from the Russian settlements, which constantly penetrated further north, the Carelians had either withdrawn westwards from the Dvina, and even from the south coast o^ the White Sea, or else begur to coalesce with the Russian population. The sea coast between Kem and Kandalaks, where the Carelians seem to have been settled at a comparatively early date, became russified later. The northern 8 114 K. F. Karjalainen, The History of the Carehans. frontier of the Carelians, which in the present province of Kem probably followed the Kiitehenselkii (Kivijarvi) — Kemjoki water system until the seventeenth century, began to movs further northwards, as new settlers came both from the south-east and also, especially during the »Great Northern War»,in considerable numbers from the Finnish side of the frontier, and penet- rated the north-western territor}-, which had previously been occupied bj- the Lapps. The population of north-western Carelia, rouna Tuoppajarvi and Kuittijarvi is rather closely related to the frontier population of Finland. During the following centur}'-, the history of Russian Carelia offers compara- tively few external changes or events of general interest. When the frontier fighting came to an end, internal conditions also began to grow more stable; peace returned, and only the wars between the states caused certain disturbances from time to time. Administrative and social conditions un- derwent perceptible changes during the seventeenth, eighteenth and nine- teenth centuries, and the organisation naturally aimed at levelling according to the all-Russian pattern. The unlimited rights of ownership in field and meadow previously possessed by individuals, or rather by families, had to be surrendered, and even free disposal of the forest wealth was limited, the cultivated land round the villages became the common property of the com- munes and each family received its plot of ground in proportion to the number of male members it included. All the rest of the land became the imme*iiate property of the crown. It was an important and priceless benefit to Caielia that the greater part of the countrj' escaped serfdom, when this was intro- duced into the rest of Russia. It is true that a couple of extensive feoffs existed on the coast of the White Sea, but these came to an end comparatively early. The Solovets monastery alone retained for a considerable period (until 1764) the right to extensiv feoffs and socagers, with the consequent comprehensive administrative and judicial rights. But this allegiance made the position of the population more favourable in many ways than that of the Rusr ian Crown peasants, which involved great dependence on the self-seeking bureaucracy. In Olonets the conditions were somewhat less happy. It is true that great estates belonging to noblemen were only to be found in the south, but the compulsor}^ labour ir the crown factories became very onerous, and even al- most took the form of slavery. Peter the Great had established here an iron industry of considerable importance, and the population was forced to spend a large part of its labour pow^r, for small wages, in providing fuel and ore. This labour-slavery became so intolerable as to lead to disturbances including an insurrection in 1771 which was drowned in blood. FEXXIA 42 NO. 3. 115 The past fortunes of Russian Carelia have not been light or easy. History ordained that it should be subject to a people wliich, with its tradesman's nature, demanded nuich but could give little. It tore the Carelians awaj- from their nearest kindred, the Finns, and caused these two brother peoples to fight each other with fire and sword. The annexation to Novgorod, the settlement b}- Russian colonists, the consequent economic tie: and other influences, ex- posed the Carelians to the menace of russification and produced a national dan- ger, the results of which can now be seen everywhere, and are most marked in the south of the province of Olonets, round I,ake Onega, and o^ the coasts of the White Sea. The Russian influence has set its mark on dwellings, cloth- ing and food; it appears in the spiritual life of the people and in their ways of thought. The Carelian language, however, has onh- died out in the most eas- terly areas. The mother still lulls her babe to sleep in words of the native language practically all over Carelia. The native speech still expresses the grief and melancholy: of the songs for special occasions, and is heard in the tender mourning laj's of the »weeper women»; but in the young people's dancing rooms the Russian »pajatus» is now everywhere heard, a Russian dan- cing song which has degenerated until it has lost all form and meaning. The sounds and structure of the language have been given a strongl}' Russian co- lour, not to mention the many Russian elements in the vocabular}-. North- west Carelia alone, the ever memorable treasurj^ of the rune singers, has been better able than other districts to resist russification, as the Carelians in this region were comparatively cut off from any settled Russian population, and their national characteristics received support from Finland, on which they have hitherto been economically dependent in a very high degree. K. F. Karjalainen. 2. The Conversion of the Carelians, and Their Religious Conditions. The Carelians received their first news of Christianity from Novgorod, and according to Russian records the attempts to convert them seem to have begun fairh' early. Among the regions paying tribute to the bishop of Novgo- rod in 1 137 are mentioned certain pogosts in Olonets, i. e. parishes, congrega- tions, which to judge from their names (Juskola, etc.) were probably Carelian. Such tribute could hardly have been levied if there had not been baptised per- sons among the population. It has already been mentioned that Prince Jaros- lav Vsevolodovitch sent priests to convert the Carelians, »practically all» of whom are said to have received baptism. Such acts were of importance to the 116 K. F. Karjalainen, Religions Conditions, Novgorodians, partly as an expression of their religious interest, but chietly because the religious allegiance formed an important political bond of union between the peoples. This point of view seems to have been quite clear to the Novgorodians and to have been considered the main motive. The iuer- chant who levied tribute, or the plundering soldier, was accompanied throu^'h the desolate forests of Carelia by the priest with cross in hand, and as the inde- pendence of Carelia diminished, so too had heathendom to give way to Chris- tendom. But in actual fact, this conversion was for long ages merely on the surface. For centuries the new doctrine exercised little perceptible influence on the hearts and minds of the people. The missionary journeys undertaken from time to time proved compara- tively barren of results, for the missionary work confmed itself to demanding baptism and participation in certain external ceremonies. Better results were attained when the numerous Greek Catholic monasteries began their labours. In spite of their remote situation, some of these have risen to the position of all-Russian sanctuaries. The monastery of Kargopol was founded on the river Onega, Murom on lyake Onega, Valamo (132^) and Konevits (1392) on islands in Lake Ladoga, the Carelian monastery of St. Nicholas (1417) on the south- ern mouth of the river Dvina, and so on. The most famous, and the most im- portant to Carelia, was the Solovets monastery, (Fig. 31), founded in 1429 (or more probably in 1435) on islands in the White Sea. This received in feoff, both from the authorities in Novgorod and from individual boyars, extensive lands on the adj acent islands and coasts, including all the estates of the noble lady Marfa Boretskaya, granted in 1470. The monastery received its largest feoff in 1591 from Grand Duke Feodor of Moscow, who presented six parishes on the mainland, »with peasants and all useful places». It was natural that the material prosperity^ of the monastery and the authority it derived therefrom also helped to spread and establish the Christian views it represented among the peasantry of the region, for whom, moreover, special missionaries were sometimes appointed. It is remarkable, however, "that the influence of the mo- nasteries, and their importance among the Carelians w-ere first shown in poli- tical matters. They became representatives of the rulers, and leaders and organisers of the defences of the country-. Thus it is possible that but for the strong and stubborn resistance of the Solovets monastery, Kem Carelia and Kola would have come to belong to the Swedish sphere of power. From a reli- gious point of view it was at first of quite insignificant importance. There are interesting statements in the Russian records which show how slowh' the new doctrine took root among the Carelians. Archbishop Makarii complains in the year 1534 that the Tchuds, FEXXIA 42 No. 3. 117 Ishors and Carelians (he is referring chiefly to L,adoga Carelia) worshipped in their sacrificial places »forests, stones, rivers, bogs, springs, mountains, hills, the sun, stars and lakes . . . and offered to evil spirits blood sacrifices of oxen, sheep, and all sorts of beasts and birds.» The writer also says that he has heard that they »slay their children in secret, throw into the flames the holy images of saints, and seek in everj' way to propitiate the devil. » »And they have an ordinary man whom they regard as their priest and call »arbui» (wizard); he performs all deceitfulness, and gives the children their names. » In consequence of this complaint the monk Ilya was sent in the same year to put a stop to such evil practices; he destroyed the places of worship, hewed down and burned the groves, and threw the stones (i. e. the idols) into the water. In the following year he abolished various »Tchudish» customs, he forbade the women to wear over their head and shoulders wimples of the same cloth as was used for winding sheets, or to cut their hair and he commanded all to give up magic. If the inhabitants of Ladoga Carelia, where the new ci\ilising influences were already entrenched, w^ere still such heathens in the sixteenth centurj-, it is easy to imagine what Christianity was like in more remote districts. Gradually however, almost without noticing it, the Carelians came to take the Russian religious views, adopted the Russian religious ceremonies and performed them with supersti- tious piety; externally they became believers. The new faith, howe\'er, often concealed beliefs inherited from their forefathers, which existed side by side with it, and found expression in man}' cUfferent religious ceremonies. Even today we find all over Carelia, under the surface of the apparent Christianity, various traces of the primitive ancestor worship, which the orthodox view helped to maintain. On the most varied occasions bits of cloth are of fered on the graves of the departed, or before crosses erected beside the rapids, by the roadside, etc. The old blood-sacrifices to the tutelary spirits, or clear relics of them, have remained to our own days, both in the Ladoga district and round Kuittijar\'i, even though the ancient, indigenous tutelary- spirit has been trans- formed into one of the saints of the church, usually St. EHas (Ilya), the patron of the crops. As generally happens, Christendom, superficially adopted and still more superficially understood, has abundantly contributed to an appre- ciable increase of superstition; the soothsayers and wizards have grown in importance. According to the standard of the Russian church, however, the Carelians are good Christians, and it must be admitted that there is no lack of sanctimony among them. The Carelians are noted for an inclination to sectarianism, which in pre- 118 A'. F. Kayjalainen. Religious Conditions. vious times was still more prominent. The Old Believers — a sect which holds by some of the older ceremonies and rejects the improved official liturgy of the patriarch Nikon — are pretty numerous, especially among the older genera- tion in northern Carelia. As representative and strong champion of this doc- trine, the Solovets monastery managed to defy even the armed forces of the govermnent until about 1 670, and the same teaching was afterwards supported by the Saaris monastery (destroyed about 1850), which was founded deep in the solitudes round Tuoppijarvi, by fugitive Old-Believing monks. Several Finns have had personal experience of the determination and zeal with which the Old Believers, especially the women, refuse to allow strangers to use the same food vessels as they use themselves, protect their old-fashioned and ge- nerally small eikons, which are kept separate from the orthodox ones, declaim against tobacco smoking, and condemn believers who adhere to the official faith, and naturally still more severely those who belong to an entirely foreign creed. Another remarkable sect, called the »fugitives» or »wanderers», appeared towards the end of the last century in the north of the government of Olo- nets, and in its vicinity on the Archangel side. This sect onlj- recognises the sacrament of baptism, forbids marriage, demands withdrawal from social life and a life of wandering from place to place, forbids the use of passports, »the stamps of Anti-Christ», military service and the payment of taxes. Owing to persecution, the members conceal the fact that the}' belong to the sect, and hide their teachers and leaders, the so-called »vitsavyot» (»those with the belt of brushwood»), in secret rooms in the farms. The third remarkable sect is formed by the »Believers>> in the Kuittijarvi district; they reckon themselves Iva^stadians and their doctrine was introduced from Finland by the pedlars, es- pecially from the Tornea district. Both the last-named sects have been consid- ered dangerous and therefore been persecuted until the last few decades. There is no question but that the Greek Catholic church has had a certain influence on the spiritual life and religious views of the Carelians, even if it has failed fundamentally to change the way of regarding spiri- tual phenomena which they have inherited from their forefathers and developed on their own soil. The influence of the church has, however, been comparatively small, chiefly because the priests and other church teachers were Russians, who often knew no language but Russian, and were frequently iinsuited to their calling. Another reason was that until quite recent times all religious services were performed in the Russian church language, of which the population has no knowledge. There has been no religious literature in the language of the country-, except transla- tions of the gospels and a few prayer books (the oldest from 1804 and FENNIA 42 Xo. 3. 119 1 20, the newest from the beginning of the present century), which were chiefly intended for the use of the priests, and thus were almost completely valueless to the population in general. The church and its institutions have achieved more in the political and national than in the religious field. The narrow Greek Catholic doctrine in Carelia has done much to accentuate the differences between Carelians and Finns, and enlarged the gulf between these nearly related peoples. Up to now, even material advantages have not been able to level these differences. The gulf can probably only be bridged by a free nationalist educational propaganda, in so far as changed conditions in Carelia may make such work possible. K. F. Karjalainen. 3. The Carelian Language. »Carelian», in the most usual meaning of the w^ord, now refers to the Baltic Finnish form of speech used by the Carelians in Olonets and in the Kem dis- trict of the government of Archangel. It is in form and structure nearly rela- ted to the eastern dialects of Finnish. Carelian is, how-ever, not confined to the districts named. It is also spoken in certain parts of Ingria, and there are clear relics of it in Finland, among the Catholic inhabitants of Salmis, Suis- tamo, Suojarvi and Ilomants, the inconsiderable remnants of the former Carelian poptdation of, Finland. Carelians are now much more numerous in the governments of Novgorod and Tver, whither their forefathers migrated to escape war, persecution and hunger, or in search of work, and where they settled down as colonists. This population cam.e partly from northern Olo- nets, from the so-called »Lapp» parishes, and partly from the regions »beyond the Swedish frontier», i. e. the parts of Carelia transferred to Finland by the peaces of Taj'ssina and Stolbovo. The Carelian population of the government of Tver is fairly continuous, and the number of persons exceeds 100,000 (it was 1 1 6,750 in 1 897). In the goverimient of Novgorod the Carelians are fewer in number (9,980), and more scattered. Nationally however, the Carelian popu- lation of both these districts is weak. Completely cut off from their kindred as they are, they are inevitably doomed to coalesce with the surrounding Rus- sians; the}' have already become russified to some extent, in language, and still more in outlook, even though they still vigorously maintain their position as a nation of their own, and in some places are even proud of it. The Carelians in the interior of Russia are of great interest to students, as they provide com- parisions which help to form a picture of the spiritual level of the Carelians 120 . A'. /•". Karjalainen, Tlie Careliaii Language. iind the condition of their language more than 300 years ago. To us Finns, there is particular interest in the fact that the Tver Carelians have no Kalevala poems, except for a few inconsiderable fragments, no richly flowing runic epic tales, no powerful magic spells or melting bridal songs, no poetry like that in which the regions of East Carelia on the T'lniiish frontier are so abundantly rich. There are two main dialects of Carelian, Carelian Proper, spoken in the Kem Province of the Archangel Government, and in the north of the Govern- ment of Olonets, — i. e. in the greater part of the Province of Povenets — , and Annus Carelian, spoken in southern Olonets, th*^ Finnish name for which is Annus. The differences are not great, and do not prevent mutual understand- ing. Where Annus Carelian sa^-s akku, jnmahi, Carelian proper, like pure Finnish, has akka, jumala; Aunus erndnd':, emdnddn, emdnddl = Carelian cmdndd, emdnndri, emdnndlld = Finnish emdntd, emdnndn, emdnndlld (the hostess, of the hostess, with the hostess); Aunus lasku, Iciskan = Carelian laiska, laizan = Finnish laiska, laiskan (lazj'); Aunus pastoa = Carelian pais- ioa — Finnish paistaa (to fry); Aunus kirjaine, kirjaizen, kirjasiu — Carelian kirjane.kirjazen, kirjaista ^= Vinmsh. kirjanen, kirjasen, kirjasta (ornament); Aunus lehti, lehtei = Carelian lehti, lehet = Finnish lehti, lehdet (leaf); Aunus suurin, suuriman ~ Carelian sunrin, simrimman , in Finnish the same (grea- test, of the greatest). In CareUan Proper various shades of dialect may be distinguished, of which the most noteworthy is the difference between north (or rather north-western) Carelian (spoken roughly in the area bet- ween the Finnish frontier and a line Tuoppajarvi— Kmttijarvi— Miinaa) and South Carelian. The former is »hard» (e. g. joki, pata, tupa, kisa pesd, selkd, ranta, kulta, rampa, as also in Finnish, which however has pesd, selkd) while the latter is »soft>> {jogi, pada, tuba, kiza, pezd, selgd, randa, kulda, ramha). North Carelian is much the same all over its area, but South Carelian shows very striking dialectal differences. In places there we hear, sanuo, azuo, astuv, selgd, pezd, kested, in places sanuo, azuo, astuo, but selgd, pesd, kested, and in places sanuo, azuo, astuo, selgd, pezd, kested. The corresponding Finnish verbs are sanoa, asua, astua and kestdd, and the nouns are s^/ifea, pesd as already mentioned. A considerable area calls the mother myamo, in a still larger area she is muamo, and in the third and largest moamo. The differences do not impede mutual understanding. There is rather niore difference between the Finnish written language and Carelian, or rather Aunus and South Carelian, but it is not greater than the dif- ference between the I^ast F^innish and West Fintush spoken dialects. Finnish literature seems to offer no particular difficulties to Carelians who can read. •FENNIA 42 No. 3. 121 Carelian has been much influenced by Russian, which has caused a number of »unfinnishisnis», both in the general sound of the language and in sound forma- tion and structure, not to mention the vocabularj-. A very large percentage of the words are borrowed, and some of them are still unassimilated in both sound and form. The »softness» in Southern and Annus Carehan mentioned above ifogi, randa, etc.) as well as the universal liquidisation on the Russian model (e. g. k'ivi, -p'ert't'i), offend the Finnish ear, as do the many strong sibilants, the »sharp» 5-sounds and the »thick» /-sounds. Beside the words borrowed from Russian, there are also »loans b}' transla- tion», i. e. Russian expressions and forms of speech reproduced in the Carelian spoken dialect. All such influences are the commoner, the nearer one approaches the Russian border, and the greater the speaker's knowledge of Russian. If it be further considered that the Carelian population is partly bilingual, and that this tends constantly to increase the accession of foreign, and to make the languange poorer in native, material, we can at least partially understand the train of thought of a Russian dilettante who described Carelian as a Russian dialect which had received an admixture of Finnish, — in ostensible earnest, though realh^ in order to mislead unreasoning readers, and to get a fair excuse for the attempts to russif}- the Carelians. The Russian loans in Carelian are naturally no proof of Russian origin. Carelian is a Finnish dialect, easily intelligible to a Finn, but quite incompre- hensible to a Russian. The Russian contributions only denote the bridge by which the people of Carelia are crossing the national frontier and leaving the home paths in order to disappear in the mass of travellers on the broad Rus- sian highwa}'. It is unquestionable that the Carelians in the interior of Russia, in the governments of Tver and Novgorod, cannot escape the russification which has already reaped considerable victories in the frontier areas. But it is still quite possible for the Carelians of Kem and Olonets to maintain their nationalit}', 3-es, and still further to develop their national life, provided the pressure of Russia be removed, and the Carelians are allowed to seek support from Finland. It may be that the immediate future will show us how far external conditions are likel}- to be favourable to such development. * K. F. Karjalainen. 4. The Wepsian Language and People. The traveller journeying up the Svir to the point where that river leaves Lake Onega, that is to the almost purely Russian village of Vosnesenie, and 122 E. N. Setdln, The Wepsian Language and People. thence about twenty -five kilometres to the north, will hear a peculiar language of which a Russian cannot understand a word, and which a Finn does not un- derstand either at the first moment. Finnish ears soon get accustomed to this language, however, and soon notice that in point of fact it is x&ry closely related to Carelian, especially to the Olonets dialects. This language is called WV/>sj;an, and is spoken on a narrow strip of the coast of Lake Onega, in certain vil- lages, viz. Himjoki (Wepsian Himjogi), Kaskeza, Kalajoki (Wepsian Kala- jogi), Soutujarvi (Wepsian Soutar, Soks). Russian settlements and uninha- bited areas separate this district from those where the Aunus Carelian dia- lects occur. Wepsian is also spoken in a considerably larger area to the south of the Svir, round the sources of the Ojat, and thence southwards, not only in the government of Olonets, but also in the Provinces of Tihvin and Bielo- sersk in the north of the govermnent of Novgorod. Its southernmost point is about a hundred versts south of the Ojat. A third little group, consisting of villages in the volost of Isaiyeff, on the road from Vytegra to Kargopol, may here be left out of account, especially as it is possible that these villages have already become russified. The Wepsians number altogether about 25,000, of whom 7,000 live north of the Svir. These figures are, however, somewhat uncer- tain, owing to the deficiencies of Russian statistics. The Wepsian districts used to be larger, but a number of Wepsian villages have in course of time been russified. The Wepsians have no certain common name. The Russians call them Tchuds, and further south Tchuhars, names which they apply to various Fin- nish peoples, and apparently used to employ for foreigners in general. The Finns in Olonets call their language naktm kieli, a name which seems to come from the Wepsian word imku »over there^>, or sometimes Soksun kieli, after the most northerly Wepsian village. The name Wepsian, which has recently become general in .scientific language (it was previously called »north Tchu- dish» in scientific works), is only used by the Novgorod Wepsians. Further northwards towards Olonets, there are tracts where neither the people nor even the language has a name. "He speaks this language" (Wepsian: t'ou k'elu pagizeh), or "be speaks like us" (Wepsian: meid'e kartte pagizeb), are in some places on the southern Svir the only way the Wepsians have of referring to their language. There is, however, another name generally used among the Onega Wepsians. Those who speak Wepsian are said to speak I'iidiks. This name is not applied to Wepsians alone, but covers Wepsians and Carelians. For if we pass from the Wepsian territory west of Lake Onega, through a few Russian villages or across uninhabited country, to the collective area of the Carelian and Olonets language, we shall find on the eastern border of that area FRNNIA 42 Xo. 3. 123 people whose language is just as comprehensible to Finnish ears as the Annus Carelian, but which reveals to the student pervasive Wepsian features. These people call themselves lild'ikoi. This intermediate form between Wepsian and Carelian comes to resemble true Carelian more and more from village to vil- lage, but the name does not here disappear. The same name occurs in the forms livvikbi and livvin kieli, by which the people of Olonets denote their own lan- guage. This name has not, as previously supposed, anything to do with the lyivonians and their language, but comes from liiidi (gen. livvin), the origin of which is uncertain (it possibly comes from the Russian aroiii Ijudi, people). It is probable that the Wepsians journeyed eastward from the common Baltic Finnish home sotith of the Gulf of Finland, wandering south of Lake Ladoga to their present dwelling places. After reaching the mouth of the Ojat, the Wepsians seem to have spread eastwards, mostly following the banks of that river, and making towards Bielo-ozero. The Wepsians are clearly meant by the Fes 'people who occtu in the Russian chronicles, are said to have lived in the district of Bielo-ozero, and took part in the foundation of the Russian Empire in the beginning of the ninth century. This people is not even entirely unknown in previous ages. Arabian sources of the ninth century mention the so-called Visii people, wliich lived a three months' journey from Great Bolgar and seems to have been engaged in the trade which the Bolgar- ians conducted along the \^olga between the countries south and north-west of Europe. The name Vcs' occurs for the last time in the year 882, after which date the term "inhabitants of Bielo-ozero" is used instead; this is no doubt a geographical description, including also Russians, who more and more migra- ted to these regions. With the Russians came a^so the Chrisian faith, and seve- ral religious houses were built, the first of them in the tenth century. Some time after 1238 the region round Bielo-ozero formed an independent principa- lity, which was incorporated in the Grand Duchy of Moscow in 1385. Vv'epsian is of peculiar interest to the student as it is at the same time closely connected with Carelian and also in some respects sharply contrasted with it. It is clear that in primitive Finnish times, when Finnish, Carelian, Votian, Esthonian and Livonian, together with Wepsian, still formed a practically homogeneous entity, Wepsian was the connecting link between Votian, Estho- nian and Livonian on the one side and Carelian on" the other, or rather between the dialects which were the source and origin of the present Baltic Finnish lan- guages. A peculiarity of Wepsian is the retention of consonants in cases where in Finnish and Carelian they have disappeared. Thus Wepsian says jagan, d'agan, where Finnish says jaan (I divide); magadan where Finnish says makaan (I sleep); Wepsian punoda == Finnish ptinoa (to plait), and this peculiarity is 124 E. N. Setdld, The Wepsiaii Language and People. found in the transition dialects of the eastern frontier of Carelia. Noteworthy also is the disappearance of \-owels in terminations and in the bod}- of words, as in Esthonian and as in the West Finnish dialects of Finland; must = Fin- nish musta (black); jumal or d'umal = Finnish jumala (god); kukrod = Fin- nish kukkarot (pouches). These peculiarities often make it difficult for a Finn to grasp the Wepsian words, although the words are exactly the same, e. g. uptan = Finnish iippoan (I drown), I'dhtked = Finnish Idhteet (spring) etc. It is characteristic of Wepsian that while retaining its primitive Finnish struc- ture, the sound formation has been very largely influenced by Russian. The phonetics of the language are entirely Russian. The similarity of the vocabulary makes it very easy for the Wepsians to learn Finnish. I have met people among them who had been to Finland and talked Finnish quite fluently. They had le arned it in a few weeks. The Wep- sians are accustomed to trav.lling all round the world in order to earn their bread. Agriculture at home is not sufficiently productive, and it is therefore left in some places to the care of women and children. Agriculture has been made unproductive bj- the harassing conditions of land ownership, which are parti}- due to the institution of the mir (village community), and partly to the previous serfdom. Fishing pays the Onega Wepsians better, for Lake Onega can offer the finer sorts of fish, salmon and vendace. However, the Wepsians prefer roaming about. The Onega Wepsians seek work as stone masons and paviours — many of them have worked as such in Helsingfors and other Finnish towns - the inhabitants of the village of Soks are glasiers, the south Wepsians seek v.-ork in the winter in carting timber. It may be added that the Novgorod Wepsians' mode of life is exceedingly primitive; there is not a single churn in their whole tenitor}-, but butter is made with a whisk (hdrkin), there is not a spinning wheel, but thread is spun with the spindle, the boat is a punt hollowed out of a single log and rowed by a single oar, the oven is used for bathing, and so on. It is remarkable that all this primitive- ness, which is of such great interest to the ethnographer, is to be found so near Petrograd as in the Tichvin district of the Government of Novgorod. The people lingviistically most closely allied to the Wepsians are the Care- lians, whose language they learn to understand completely in a few days. If communications should be improved in Wepsian territory by a more efficient government, agrarian reforms be carried out, and the level of education raised, the Wepsians could develop from their present depressed condition into useful champions in the ser\nce of civilisation. There is among them a pre- vailing desire to learn, and a hope for better conditions of life. E N. Setala. FENNIA 42 No. 3. 125 5. Statistics of Population. The last general census in Ruscia was made in the year 1910, but the details thereb}' obtained as to the numbers of inliabitants in the different communes and as to the various nationalities, have not been available in accessible docu- ni'^'nts. We are therefore forced to be content with the statistics of the general census of 1897, and paitly with special figures which are less complete, from the statistics of the governments for the years 1902, 1905, 1907, 1908 and 1910. According to the census of 1897, there were then the following numbers of inhabitants in the different Provinces: Province Urban inhabitants Rural inhabitants Total inhabitants Olonets Petrosavodsk 1 Povenets 1,246 3i% 12,522 15.8% 1,294 4.9% 2 447 69 % 38,744 96.9% 67,190 84.2% 25,087 95.0 %, 32,945 93.1% 39,990 79,712 26,381 35,392 Kem Whole area 17,509 9.6% 163,966 90.4% 181,475 The percentage of urban population is considerably lower than the average of the other governments of European Russia (13 ''/o). The proportion is on the average the samt. as in the province of Uleaborg in Finland. 96.5 o/q of the rural population belongs to the peasant class. The densit}- of population in the various provinces was in 1897 as fol- lows; Province Area, excluding water Inhabitants Olonets 9,523 sq. km. 4.2 per sq. km. 15,462 » » 5.2 » » » 40.880 » » 0.6 » » » nearly 62,500 » » 0.6 » » » Petrosavodsk Povenets Kem Whole area 128,365 sq. km. 1.4 per sq. km. 126 O. Lonnroih. Statistics of Population, The statistics of 1897 also grouped the population according to their na- tive language. The following are the official figures. Language in the year i897- Province Russians Related to the Finns Other na- Total Finns Carelians Wepsians Total tionaii- ties No of ! J, 1 No. of persons " persons 0/ No. of 0,' '0 '0 persons No. of|o/^ persons ] No. of 0/ No. of 0/ persons " perbors " No. of persons Olonets Petrosavodsk Povenets .... Kem 10,794'27.0j 581 53,51667.1 837 13,036 49.4: 190 15.926 44.9 161 1.5 1.0 0.7 0.5 28,532 71.3 17,643 22.1 13,106 49.7 19,236 54 4 13'- 7,271 9.2 5 — 91 - 29,12672.8 70 25,75132 3 445 13,301,50.4 44 19.40654 91 60 0.2 0.6 02 0.2 39,990: 79.712 26 381 35.392 Whole area 93,272 51.4 1,769 1.0 78,51743.1 7,298 4.C 87,58448.: s 619 0.3 181,475 These official figures give the proportion of the inhabitants speaking Fin- nish, Carelian dialects, Wepsian and other Finnish languages as 72.8 ^j^ in Olonets, 32.3 "/^ in Petrosavodsk, 50.4 ^j^ in Povenets and 54.9 ^j^ in the Pro- vince of Kem. We have however expressly stated that this linguistic division does not show the real distribution of nationalities in East Carelia. It can safely be asserted that a considerable number of those entered as Russians are really Carelians who know more or less Russian and have for this reason been put down as Russian, or they may themselves, for convenience or other rea- sons, have reported themselves to the authorities as belonging to that natio- nality. The Zemstvo of the goverrmient of Olonets specialh^ remarks in a report, that the official grouping of the population according to language made in 1897 "does not mean that the proportions given to the different nationali- ties were correct". The unreliability of the figures is also shown by the fact that the figures of 1907 quoted below state that out of 42,242 persons in the province of Kem, 28,022 (66.3 o/q) were Carelians. This is a considerably high- er proportion than that given in the statistics of 1897, according to which the Carelians only formed 54.9 % of the population of the province. According to the statistics of the governments for the years 1907 and 1908 (the Olonets, Petrosavodsk and Povenets figures are for 1908 and the Kem figures for 1907), the whole population of East Carelia was as follows: Province Urban inhabitants Rural inhabitants Total inhabitants Olonets I 2,137 46% Petrosavodsk j 1 5,041 1 5.7 % Povenets 1,563 4.7% Kem ; 2.870 6.8 % Whole area 21,611 99% 43,626 95.4% 80,826 84.3% 31,548 95.3% 39,372 93.2 % 45,763 95,867 33,111 4,2242 195.372 90.1% 216,983 FKNNIA 42 No. 3. 127 It is stated that 47.5 ^j^ of the population were males and 52.5 ^j^ females. Figures of the nationalities have only been available for the province of Kem, and these have been given above. The population has thus grown between the years 1897 and 1908 (1907) by 35,508 persons or 19.6 %. The density of population in the various provinces was in 1908 (1907) as follows: 1 1 Province ^^^' Inhabitants excluding water ; Olonets 9,553 sq. km. 4.8 per sq. km. 15,462 » » ' 62 » » v> 40,880 » » 0.8 » » » about 62 500 » >> O7 » » » Petrosavodsk Povenets Kem Whole area 128,365 sq. km. 1.7 per sq. km. It may be mentioned for the sake of comparision, that the density of popu- lation in Finland in the year 1908 was 9.0 inhabitants per square kilometre for the whole country, and in the different provinces was as follows: Province of Nyland 31.9 » » Abo and Bjorneborg 21.9 » » Tavastehus 19.i » » Viborg 15.S » » St. Michel 11.8 » » Kuopio 9.1 » » Vasa 13.0 » » Uleaborg 2.o East Carelia can therefore be most closelj' compared with the province of Uleaborg, with regard to density of population The comparatively high fig- ures for the provinces of Olonets and Petrosavodsk raise the average, but even these provinces do not reach the figure for the province of Kuopio, which after Uleaborg is the most thinh* populated province in Finland. The figures for the provinces of Povenets and Kem show a remarkabh' low density of population. The following figures as to the distribution of the population within the various provinces have been compiled from special Russian sources for the years 1902 — 08. Information as to the nationality of the population (Carelian, Wepsian and Russian) has been added as far as possible. 128 O. Loyitiyvth, St;ili.stii-,s ol jxijjulatioii. (jovernment of Oloneis; Provmce of Olonets. Town of Olonets 1908 2,137 including about 500 Russians. Tulemajarvi Commune 1905 3,258 Carelians. Vieljiirvi » 1902 5,344 » Videle » 1905 5,694 » Keskotjiirvi » | Kotkatjarvi » / 1902 3,466 » \ Riipuskala » 1902 6,316 » Njekkula » 1902 7,312 mostly Carelians, a small pro- portion Russians. Vaasheni » 1902 6,109 half Wepsians half Russians. Matysova » 1905 5,334 mostly Russians. Government of Olonets; Province of Petrosavodsk. Town of Petrosavodsk 1908 15,041 mostly Russians, a small pro- portion Careliaps. Munjiirvi Commune 1905 6,342 Carelians, partly Wepsians. Kontupohja > 1902 8,349 Russians, partly Carelians. Suurlahti > Tepenitsa > > 1 > ( » 11,228 Russians. Tulvoja > » 12,026 » Saamajarvi > » 7,457 Carelians. Suoju ) Jalguba ) > I > / » 7,807 Ru.ssians, a small proportion Carelians. Pyhajarvi > » 3,682 Carelians, partly Wepsians. Ladva > » 6,249 Russians, partly Wepsians. Soutjarvi » 9 589 Wepsians. Ostretchini > » 3,409 Russians. Government of Olonets; Province of Povenets. Town of Povenets 1908 I 1,563 Rukajarvi Commune | 1905 | 2,229 mostly Russians. Carelians. I-IvXNIA 42 No. 3. 129 Repolu Commune 1905 2,116 Carelians Paadeiic » » 4 084 ». Petrovsko-J am » 1902 2.716 Russians. Porajarvi » [ Lindajarvi >> j 1§05 2,333 Carelians. Mantyselka » • » 4,087 » Danilova ^> 1902 1,869 Russians. Sungu » » 7,537 mostly Russians. Riniskaya » » 940 Russians. Govermnent of Archangel; Province of Kem. Town of Kem 1907 2,870 Market town of vSuma » 1,427 Kandalaks Commune » 586 Kouta » » 737 Kieretti » » 1,089 Oulanga » » 1,906 Kiestinki » » 3,586 \'itsataipale » » 912 Pistojarvi » » 1.318 Vuokkiniemi » » 3.525 Uhtua » » . 3,005 Paanajarvi » » 1066 Ponkama >> » 1 892 Usmana » » 555 Kontokki » » 1,872 Jyskyjarvi » >> 1,734 Tungut » >> 2,286 Voijarvi >•> » 1,052 Suiku » » 1,844 Suikujarvi >^ » 1,075 Sorokka » » 3,406 ^ Lapina » » 1,471 j Koleshma » >> 1034 Xjuhtcha » » 2.018 acl . 364 Carel. 2506 Russ. 219 » 1.208 » 124 » 465 » 94 » 619 » 548 » 541 » 1,096 » - 3,586 » — » 912 » — >> 1,318 » — » 3,525 » — ,-> 3,005 » — /) 1066 » — » 326 » 1 ,566 » 555 » — » 1,872 » — » 1,734 » — » 2,286 » -- » 1.052 * — >) 1,844 » » 1.075 -> >•> 614 » 2,792 » — » l'471 — ■'> 1,034 » 2.018 130 U. T. Sirelius, The Life of the People. The foregoing statistics of the population according to communes are graphi- cally shown on the appended map, where the figures in the circles by the chief village of each commune denote the number of inhabitants in the respective communes. A table of the population of Kola according to the statistics at our disposal is here added. The inhabitants numbered in the year 1910 1 1,976 persons, distributed over the different communes as follow: Town of Kola 1 ,000 inhabitants. Town of AlexandrovsL 600 » Commune of Murman Settlers (chief village Uura) 3,020 » Kola Lapp Comnutne (chief village Lovozersk) 2,164 » Ponoi Commune 524 » Tetrina » 1,390 » Kuzomen » 2,397 » Umba .^ 881 » Total 11,976 inhabitants. The linguistic boundars' from the Svir to the frontier of Kola Lapmark has been marked on the map by a red dotted line, from information supplied by Mr. Lauri Hannikaixen and Dr. P. Eskola, and in accordance with the preceding communal statistics of population. West of tliis boundary line Care- lian (with Wepsian) is the main language; east of it Russian. The boundary starts from the southern frontier of the province of Olonets on the shores of Lake Ladoga, runs towards the north-east through th.e church- village of Vaa- sheni, north of Ladva church, there takes a sharp bend to the south-east, ard touches the shore of Lake Onega south of the village of Himjoki. It follows that shore northwards to the village of Pedajaselkii, whence it makes a bend to the west round the town of Petrosavodsk and its neighbourhood, approaches the village of Suoju, and then follows the Murman railway north as far as Kem. The country is Carelian in the west and north, except for the coastal districts round the villages of Kalkalahti, Gridinko, Kieretti, Kouta, Knajsa, Hetesova and Kandalaks. Onni Lonnroth. 6. The Life of the People. Carelia, and especiall> Hast Carelia, has won fame as the land of poetrj- and music. The ancient national instrument, the Kantele, has been preserved I'I'XXIA 42 No. 3. 131 to the present day, and the ancient race of bards has not yet entirely died out. These are the facts which make the Finnish heart beat fast when the name of Carelia i? mentioned. The land is wrapped in poetry, which is fed by the Hveh' and playful nature of the people, and its mobile fancy — qualities which are comparatively rare among the other Finnish races. The Carelians also love displa}^ and splendour, whenever their resources allow of it, and it is visible in their large and ornamented buildings, their silken clothing, their decorative embroidery, and so on. Many a village has grown up round a large family dwelling, and the ties of kinship are still plainly evident in the number of adjacent homesteads, even when the famil}- has dispersed. These seem to have fostered the social sense of the Carelians, and it is a fact that they are reluctant to leave their ancestral homes for the more solitary regions. They frequently visit their neighbours, and intercourse is also maintained over more extended circles. They will travel several leagues to meet relations and acquaintances, and to form new connec- tions. One who knows Carelia writes: »the hoi}' daj's in which the Greek Church is so rich are used for these expeditions. The Carelian will stay on for a working day or two if he is asked. Each village has its own festival day, »prasniekka>>, when visitors are expected. All men and women from the home tract who then arrive are freely entertained with food and drink in the village. The ad- vantages of having common, fixed visiting days are great. The people one wants to meet know to stay at home. Visitors do not cross each other there- fore, which otherwise might easily happen, and which, owing to the great dis- tances, would be very annoying. One also knows to be prepared beforehand for receiving visitors. And finally, it is an opportunity for boys and girls to meet, and to choose their companions for life from a wider circle. The •>>pras- nikkas» are also marriage markets, and this induces both young and old to at- tend them, the latter out of pure interest in the matter.* Dwellers in the wilds also keep careful note of the festival days, so that none of them pass unnoticed. They carve wooden calendars, on which each day has its notch, and festivals have a special mark. In former times the trappers took similar calendars with them on their hunting expeditions. At the festival places different kinds of games and dances are arranged. They begin with what is called a »handgame»; a girl invites a boy to be her partner, the pairs stand opposite each other in a long row, and the boy in turn takes the girl's hand and lifts it a couple of times gently, as if to see how much it weighs (Fig. 32). 132 v. 1 . Sirelius. The Ivife of the People. Mucli that is ancient and poetic has been retiiined among tlie marriage customs. Female virtue is held in high honour, and lapses from it seldom occur. Many people assemble for a wedding. The wizard, »pat\'a.ska», who guards the happiness of the bridal i)air, has his important allotted place. The progranmie includes the bride's instruction and her weeping. Others also weep at th( wed- ding, esi)ecially the mother and female neighbours, when the bridal pair and the rest of the company have left the house (Fig. 33). The wedding ceremonies also include the bride's curtseying and bending down on the fur rug, the bath, and the veiling of the face at the wedding and on the bridal journey In the warm season the games are held in the open air under the open sky, or in the hayloft above the byre, but seldom in the dwelling house. The hay- loft and byre are under the same roof as the d\\elling house. The housewife is therefore not obliged to go out into the open air to look after the animals. The buildings are mostly in what is called the Novgorodian style, which is generally prevalent in northern Russia. The floor level is high, so that the house has the effect of a two storied building, which in fact it often is. A high, frequently roofed staircase leads from the farm-yard to the entrance lobby, on one side of which is the dwelling, and on the other the storehouse (Fig. 34). The entrance lobby also leads to the hayloft, which is a few steps higher. Un- der this are the byre and pigsty, and an open room in which the horses are kept, and into which they are driven b}' a large door or gate. Large, wealthy homesteads contain in addition to the dwelling room and store house, a room for visitors, »gornitcha», and sometimes have also a third storey, where there is an attic »tsardakka», with balconies or »galdarins>>. Wealth}' people devote much care to the external appearance of the building. The gables, eaves and window frames are ornamented. The furnishing on the other hand, is simple. The dwelling room contains benches and a table against the back wall. Beds are only found in the richer homesteads. The guest room is papered, however, and contains a sola, a cupboard with glass doors, and window curtains. Smoke- houses have now practically entireh' died out. Much care is expended on the graves, which are called »dead-houses». A kind of shed is erected over the grave, or else it is niarked by a decorati\'e pil- lar (Fig. 35). The burying place is either a protected forest grove, or some is- land, and with its ancient trees and interesting memorials, fills the visitor with a wonderful feeling of respect and devotion. It was the old custom to leave at the burial ground the boat in which a body had been conveyed thither. The dress has for the most part become russified, and with the e- fashions cotton ])rint lias been introduced and come into general usage. The FJCXNIA 42 Xo. 3. 133 older women, however, still wear an old fashioned »kosto» — a survival from heathen times. The women's dress was then made of two pieces of material which were tacked together under the arm holes, and joined on the shoulders b}' two clasps. Later, when these dresses disappeared, they were succeeded by ones like that in the illustration (Fig. 36) worn by the mistress at Ruva. The mark of the unmarried women was the fillet, later represented b}' a folded kerchief.. The married women's headdress was a hood, »sorokka», the front and neck-pieces of which were richly embroideied. A beaded cap was afterwards adopted in place of tbe hood. It is long since there was any uniformity in the men's dress, which has reflected partly the Finnish and partly the Russian influence. The hunting dress, of which the most characteristic part is a wide linen coat (Fig. 37), is of ancient origin. Until quite recent times hunting and fishing played an important part in the economic life, as is easily comprehensible in a land as rich in forests and lakes as East Carelia. The villages have their own hunting grounds, and the homesteads their own hunting tracks, along which traps used to be laid in the autumn, when the hunting season began. Such hunting tracks, on which birds and squirrels were trapped, circled at a distance of tens of kilometres round a bath house, which was built out in the wilds for the convenience of the trap- pers. New cross bows were still being made at the end of the eighteenth cen- tury; in the middle of that century long-bows were ."^till in use in some places. Reindeer and bears are still to be met with in the forests. Most of the soil is sandy or stony, or else there are large bogs, so that it is little suited to agriculture. The best agricultural land is on the river Olonets in the province of Olonets, and in the province of Petrosavodsk. In previous times a man could burn-beat wherever he liked on the land belonging to his family, but since the Russian crown assumed possession of the large and rich forests of the country and introduced a regular system of forestry, the Care- lians have had to be content with the small plots of land round the villages, which were assigned to them for cultivation. The livestock is not very numerous, the cows being of a native race which is characterized b}- a white stripe on the back. They milk best in the summer, when the good pastures offer abundance of fodder, but go dry towards the end of the autumn, when they are fed on rye straw. Butter making is gene- ral, either in churns, or in earthenware vessels by means of spoons. The lat- ter method is used when the milk supply is. small. In Kem Carelia, peddling used to be one of the most important means of livelihood. Cloth was the chief article of sale. In the winter practically all 134 ./. E. Rosberg, Conditions of Healtli. the male inhabitants of some villages in northern Carelia went over to Fin- land, or, as it was called, »on the Swedish expedition*. On these expeditions the pedlars learned to know Finland, and it was this knowledge of the Finnish conditions, so much better than their own, which made the Carelians begin to long for union with Finland. The Olonets waters are very rich in ore, and its collection used to be an important source of income for a number of families. Many pass the summer by the rivers in the wilds, occupied in mussel fishing, which occasionally re- sults in a valuable pearl. Formerly the tackle consisted of wooden tongs, but now a broom-like iron tool is used. The mussels are caught on its teeth and raked up. The man lies on a wooden raft looking down into the depths through a hole in the raft (Fig. 38). When he sees a mussel, he usually takes a small tool, but often too a larger one, throwing it then at random. If he succeeds, good; if not, he hopes to make a better shot next time. In former times salt was obtained from the sea water at places on the White Sea Coast. The Carelians rn Olonets also trained hunting falcons, and ob- tained high prices for them. U. T. SiRELIUS. 7. Conditions of Health. Jt is easy to realise that the care of health is still at a very priniiti^ve stage in East Carelia. No rules of hygiene have yet been preached to the inliabi- tants. The people live as nature taught them. The infant mortality from epide- mic diseases is terribly great. There is no belief in the conveyance of infection. »God the Father knows whom He will call, whatever means man takes to pre- serve life», is often said. The batlvhouse is considered to be a remedy for all diseases, especially if it is followed by drinking vodka. It is not likel)- that a spirit glass conveys infection, as the spirit itself has a disinf(ctant effect The Old Believers, who are otherwise very punctilious about diet, toleiate vodka for hygienic reasons, they sa^' themselves, but consider tobacco smoking on the other hand to be sinful, »for that which goes into the mouth does not pol- lute, but that which comes out of it». East Carelian families generally have a large number of children, and the mothers say quite resignedly: We shall have plenty left, if some should die. From the time children are two years old, the}- observe the fasts, (that is, they may not drink milk on Wednesdays and Fridays), except of course the long fast before Easter, when those who are fasting may not touch milk even on FKXXIA 42 No. 3. 135 the other days of the week. Children who survive, howe\'er, look healthy. This is no doubt partly due to the fact that their small bodies are hardened very severely. Indoors they only wear a short, coloured shirt (»for reasons of cleanliness»), all the 3'ear round, and all the summer they toddle about the farmyard in the same light garment. Blind people and deaf mutes are seldom seen. There are said to have been more blind in earlier times, when smoke- houses were more general. Now smoke-houses are only to be found in forest regions. W^eak-sighted persons are generally employed as cattle herds. Older persons also are ravaged b}' infectious diseases. Smallpox often rages in the villages, and one may hear of as many as a hundred deaths in a large village from a single smallpox epidemic. Vaccination is prescribed, but seldom takes place. That operation is dreaded and avoided when possible. The vacci- nators too are neither energetic nor skilled. Vodka is considered the best remedy for smallpox, but the spirit glass is never washed, and all who want to be disinfected drink from the" same glass, which both health}- and sick have used before. Tuberculosis is not specially prevalent. It is said to be common- est in the coastal villages and in the far north. Syphilis is verj^ common among former soldiers and those who have worked as shop-assistants in Rus- .sia, but not otherwise. It is spread through the system of having a common prostitute for the kartell* (a group of workers) and when the patients do not treat themselves, its effects are obvious. The spread of infection is very much helped by the custom of kissing the images of saints at places of pilgrimage, and by the habit of using unwashed vessels. The Old Believers avoid this last danger to some extent, as the}' never allow an Orthodox or a Lutheran to eat out of their vessels. If such a thing occurs, the vessel is thrown away or broken. Bugs are not as common as in Finnish houses, as the inside walls are washed for every saint's day, and sometimes for Sundays also. The walls are made of round logs, which are smooth and so facilitate this washing. Bugs are only common in the inns. In many of these they occur in incredible numbers. One protects oneself by putting a wreath of fresh hay round the bed, which lies on the floor. Fleas are rare. On the other hand body lice occur here and there in beds and furs. It is said that Carelians seldom have lice in the beard, which are fairly common with Russians. They take great care of their beards, wash them carefully in the bath-house, and often comb them. The cockroaches may also be counted among the vermin. There are often masses of these, and they are not exterminated, as in many places they are looked upon as a home com- fort. It can happen that one is forced to keep on driving these parasites away from the edge of the earthenware bowl, to be able to have the milk to oneself. 13(5 A'. F . K(i> jdldineu, Schools and Ivduoatioii. The constant hand- washings and frequent use of the bath-house make for cleanliness. The hands are washed before every meal, and sometimes after eating, in a brass bowl over a slop-pail in a corner of the living room. After a meal the mouth is wiped on a long, embroidered towel, which those sitting on each side of the table keep over their knees during the meal. Unfortunately, however, the towel is not washed every day. The bath-house is used every Saturday evening and on the eve of every saint's day. The Orthodox have many saint's days. It is not the custom for men and women to bathe together. After the bath, the nearest water course is used for cooling. Afterwards, immense quantities of hot tea are drunk, and the abundant perspiration is dried off with towels. L" nder-clothing also is kept fairly clean and often washed, being beaten with wooden beaters. This treatment howe\"er, makes it neither clean nor white. The diet is simple enough, and by no means always wholesome. A long fast is followed by inordinate eating, especially" of pies and pasties which have different names and various appearance. Famine sometimes occurs, especially in the spring. Every village, in the northern regions, especially those furthest from the main roads, has its pine-tree slope, whence bark is taken for mixing in the bread. R^'e bread is the staple food. Fish, often dried in the oven, is also eaten, and milk as far as the supply goes. In spite of their simple life, which is far from being always hygienic, adult Carelians are generalh' healthy, strongly- built, straight and supple figures. They are steeled against hardship, excellent bearers, who can easily walk long distances with a burden weighing forty or fifty kilograms, and efficient if not especially persevering workers. The doctors in East Carelia only number seventeen. Fourteen of these are under zemstvos, four in the province of Olonets, five in that of Petrosavodsk, and five in that of Povenets. liach of these doctors has his own hospital. There are also doctors appointed by the central government in the capitals of each of these three provinces. Petrosavodsk has a provincial hospital. There are chemists in the towns. There are four veterinary surgeons, three of them un- der zemstvos, and one appointed by the government (in Petrosavodsk). J. 1^. ROSBERG. 8. Schools and Education in East Carelia. In regard to intellectual nurture, the population of East Carelia, as "of so many other territories, has had to manage for itself, without the guidance it Fig-. 31. Solovets Monastery photo ./. O. Kihlmaii . \ \ I V w - / .^■"^eswassiw -fw^^p^ \\ l,:^-! ^^^^^■^;^ „ 2|ir1pP*'^K* ^p^*'"'?'^,*'^^™ - Pi'^fcfi.. ^■.^ *».i' r^fM ^--'%. ^^%^ ■ ^ w ' V -^■k f>:J IP' 1 '^ BM • • • • av • • • • • • •^►' 1 • • • • • %» • •• Fig. 32. »Hand Game» (Kasikisa) Kern Carelia. Photo /. K, Inha. Fig-. 33. Women Neighbours Weeping^ for a Mot- her who is Left Alone, Kem Carelfs.- • \ Photo'/. A'. 'Inhn' Fig. 34. Lari Homestead at Luvajarvi. Province of Povenets. Photo Yrjii Bloinsiedt. ^~t:m Fig. 36. Woman in Old Fas- hioned Dress, Oulanka. Photo U. 7'. Sireliits. > h4 a o P5 Fig. 37. Man in Old Fashioned Hunting- Drees, Miinoa. Drawing by V. Bloynstedt. FKXXIA 42 No. 3. 137 needed. It is true tliat attempts were made, as early as the eighteenth century, to establish schools in the government of Olonets, but these were of practic- ally no service to the Carelian people. The last century brought the beginning of improvement, but the results were not perceptible to any very great extent. Until the close of the century the Russian schools worked under the constraint due to Pobiedonostseff's iron will, and fear of »secular» instruction among the common people. His ruling principle was that the common people only need just to be able to read, wTite and count, and to' know the prayers and hymns necessary fo. divine service; all higher learning is an evil. The »secular» ele- mentary schools with a slightly more extensive programme, established b}' the ^Ministry of Popular Instruction and the Zemstvos, were allowed to live a languishing existence, and were often located in remote villages. In the »reliable» church schools conducted by the priests, the teachers were generalh' ignorant priests untrained in teaching, sacristans, and women who had passed through the diocesan school, generally the daughters of priests and church servants. This educational sj'stem could not boast of the results it attained even in the central governments of Russia — the results were best in places where the zemstvos had managed to obtain a somewhat freer hand — and the condi- tions in the frontier districts 'were still worse. The literates in the province of Kem were, according to the statistics of 1897, about fifteen per cent of the population, and in the government of Olonets in 1907 they formed twenty- five per cent. Literacy was perhaps rather more general in the parts of Kem Carelia adjacent to the Finnish frontier, for the pedlars and their Finnish wives had there diffused a certain amount of interest in reading Finnish. In the last decade of the nineteenth century we made acquaintance there with an individual who had a library of some tens of works, chiefly in Finnish, and this was often spoken of in the neighbourhood as a marvel. The twentieth century has brought great changes to the schools of East Carelia. The modest efforts of the Carelians in F'inland, and their friends (especialh" since the year 1906) to improve the material condition of Carelia, to spread elementary education in the brotherland on our frontier, and to draw it closer to Finland by the bonds of culture, aroused in Russia a loud outer}- about Greater-Finnish and Lutheran propaganda. There was much talk of the menacing danger to the union of Carelia with Russia. The infant schools and libraries with reading rooms established by funds collected in Finland were closed, and some of those who had taken a leading part in the work were imprisoned. The »Orthodox Fraternity of Carelia» was founded in 1907, with a view to maintaining the »only true faith»in East Carelia, and giv- ing the people religious and moral instruction by the publication and distri- 138 K. F. Karjalainen. Schools And Education. bution of religious works in the popular language. The »Fraternity of Archan- gel Carelia» founded in 1908 »in the name of the Archangel Michael» has the same aim; the society gives as its object the establishment of church infant schools, with boarding houses; the curriculum of these schools includes handi- crafts and agriculture. The secular authorities have also been given freer hands, in using which the provincial assembly of Olonets has been particularly active. In the three Carelian provinces of that Government, Olonets, Petrosavodsk and Povenets, sixty- two new schools were opened in the years 1907—9 alone, and in the Kem province of Archangel it was decided to establish fifteen vil- lage schools. Boarding houses for pupils living at a distance were opened or at least projected in connection with several of these schools. There are good grounds for the satisfaction with which a Russian writer notes that since 1907 the general principle of popular instruction has at last been realised, for there are about 350 schools there among a population of 145,000, so that each school- district contains something over 400 persons, of whom about 45 are children of school-age. This strong interest in the development of the educational system is very remarkable. The rest of Russia can hardly show its like, and it inspires both secular and religious authorities. Unfortunately there are no exact figures as to the present number of schools. In order to give some idea of the conditions, it may be stated that the three provinces of Olonets which have, a Carelian population had in the year 1912 336 village elementary schools, of which 26 were established and maintained by the Ministry of Popular Instruction, 188 by the provincial assembl}^ and 122 by ecclesiastical authorities. In 1907 there were 38 elementary schools in the province of Kem. There are also several secondarj^ schools in the towns; for example Petrosavodsk has two g^nnnasia, a theological seminar}-, and ele- mentary^ teachers' training school, and training schools for barber-surgeons and engineers, while Kem has, among others, a school of navigation. An in- stitute for training missionary preachers for work among the Carelians was established in 1908 in the village of Paadene in the government of Olonets, and a training school for elementary teachers at Uhtua in the province of Kem. The town schools are naturally open to the Carelians in so far as the>' are able to profit by the instruction. Thus, the I'etrosavodsk seminarium had in 1909 four Carelians among 300 pupils. In describing the educational conditions of Hast Carelia, we ma}- mention that several merchants who originally came from Carelia and afterwards be- came wealthy have to some extent assisted the elementars' instruction of their homeland, although this help has chiefly benefited the instruction given in the Russian language, and there have" not been as many givers as might FEXXIA 42 Xo. 3. 139 have been expected from the resources available. The Carelian donors have obviously been thinking more of the good of their wretched souls than of the education of the rising generation; they have therefore contributed to the pros- perity and splendour of the churches rather than to the schools — thus follow- ing the usual Russian example. A remarkable exception is afforded by the merchant Minin, who in 1878 gave the funds for establishing and maintaining in the village of Kiimasjarvi in Jyskj-jarvi a Russian school with pupils' board- ing house, which works principalh' at practical subjects. It can confidently be expected that as general education increases among the Carelians, they will produce men who will have at heart and hasten to support the education and instruction of ^-outh in their own language. There is already a beginning in the work of »Karjalan Sivistysseura» (The Carelian Society for Popular In- struction) and its predecessor, »Vienan Karjalaisten I^iitto» (The Union of East Carelians). It would be a pleasure to dwell on this intensive educational work for the intellectual elevation of the Uvely and in some ways very gifted Carelian people, which is worthily supported by the work done in the government of Olonets for the advancement of economic life, were it not that the work has a sad back- ground. The zeal is not due to unselfish interest in education, but almost entirel}' to the narrow spirit of russification. The intention has been to pre- vent the Carelians from f alUng into the false snares set by the Finns, and to prevent them from being influenced by Finnish culture. The chief object looming before both church and school has been to amalgamate the Carelians with the faithful Russian people »in the immediate future». This hope is by no means built on loose sand, especially as Further Carelia, even in the fron- tier districts, has often shown an inclination to draw away from Finland in economic matters and seek closer connections with Russia, owing to the past course of development of industrj- and traffic, and also as a result of the politi- cal conditions. Even some score of 3^ears ago, the present writer found in a little frontier village in the government of Olonets, that the population them- selves thought it desirable and even indispensable for the rising generation to learn Russian — for Russian was needed for military service — while at the same time in the villages further east a knowledge of Russian and a Rus- sian turn of mind were regarded as a sign of superiority and as an honour. And that was the period when the energetic, systematic and very resourceful work of russification first began. The method has changed. The commanding, reso- lute tone formerly used to the Carelians has become a good deal more kindly and insinuating. As late as the last decade of the nineteenth century children might not be taught their ven,- first letters in Carelian, even if the teacher knew 140 --}. O. Vdisdncu. Poetry and -Music. tliat language. Later, dnriiiL; the first years of the present century, it at least began to be realised that it was necessary to impart the »principles of reli- gious and moral instruction» in Carelian, and to provide the people with reli- gious literature in their own language, to prevent the population from wishing to learn iMnnish and use tliat tongue as the language of education. A number of the Carelians seem to have been caught on this hook baited with instruction in their mother tongue. The new winds which have blown up from Finland and even from Russia, have probably, and indeed perceptibly, injured the old leaven, and have spread among the Carelians in ever-widening circles the knowledge and conviction that there is a better future before the people of Carelia than to be absorbed into an unimportant continuation of the muddy Russian sea. They are convinced that the Carelian people has also its task in developim- and maintaining its o\\ n peculiar, national cultural life. K. V. Karjal.aixen. 9. Poetry and Music of East Careiia. As a child I lost mj- mother. Small was I and had no mother, Like a lark on rock}' height, Like a thrush in stony desert. Had to chirrup as a lark does, Had to sing the thrush's song; Strangers had to care for mie, And a step-dame be my ruler. (KaJevala, 50; 561-8). Pienna jiiin minii emosta, matalaina maammostani, jiiin kuin kiuruksi kivelle, rastahaksi rauniolle, kiuruna kivertiimilhan, rastahana raikkumahan, vaimon vierahan varahan, ehtohon emintimaisen. It is as if muse of the I'innish people had composed these lines about our kindred folk, which is se\ered from the conunon family stock. The Carelians, our unhappy brothers on the frontier, drew the worst lot. We can apply to them the dirge of the Kantelet^r: 1 FHXXIA 42 Xo. 3. 141 The kindred of my tribe have left lue, As the squirrel the dry fir tree. The tribe has grown indignant with nie, All my family has disowned me, My own brother is a stranger, Proudly goes my sister by me. (Kanteletar 1, 39). Niin mun heitti heimokunta kuin orava kuivan kuusen. Suku suuttui, heimo heitti, oma veikko vierastutti, siskoni kavi sivutse. The fact that this was so, however, brought Finland gain. Living under hard conditions, and far from the treasures of civilisation, the Carelian race has preserved and enriched the precious heritage of our forefathers more faith fully than its kindred on this side of the frontier. When the Finnish people woke to national consciousness, it had no ancient traditions of its past history or its heroes, but these outcast members of the Finnish race showed themselves able to give form to our most precious recollections. The seers but for whom Finland would have had no Kale\"ala ^vere born and grew up in Carelia. Scientific research, seeking to gather from the popular conciousness a knowledge of the ancient paths followed by the Innnish stock, has learnt most and best from the seers of Carelia. We picture the heathen religion of the Finns, their ancient ceremonies and customs, their songs and music in past days, chiefly as the^' were in Carelia. Research has not yet succeeded in explain- ing all the accumulations of long ages which are reflected in these memorials of our oldest culture. It has been chiefly engaged in solving the problems hid- den in the Kalevala lays. The curious frose compositions, originating from a primeval stage of development, which still survi\'e where the Carelian chalects are spoken, have been left almost entirely disregarded. Onlj' a passing glance has been given to the imaginative, poetic world concealed in these prose lays. These are preferred by theCareliansfor marriages and burials, and the meaning of the words corresponds beautifully and harmoniously to the traditional cere- monies the}^ accompany. There is no metre to pre\'ent characteristic varia- tions in language or in meaning from coming to expression in different regions or by individual singers. As for the structure of the Carelian prose lays, each 142 A. D. Vdisdnoi, I'( ttrv and ]Music. verse consists of a main or subordinate sentence of unlimited length, which is distinguished from the language of conversation by alliteration, parallelism, (repetition) and figurative language. These prose lays are generally known under the name of sweeping soiigs» — tears and weeping are common at impor- tant farewells, whether marriages, burials, or departures to the war. Although the Carelians' neighbours, the Russians, also use weeping songs on similar occasions, modern research has furnished many proofs that there is no truth in the common accusation that this custom is a foreign loan. Regarded as Ij'ric poetry in any case, the Russian weeping songs are far below the Carelian. Weeping Song from Keni Carelia, Sung at a Marriage. J = 80. ^Eg^E^Eg pg^ggg a) loa - van jal [^^JSii3 3=3=i: It ki - - - - mai-set ker - - tai - seT o - - - m ilia lak - lo-val - Ht^gg^i^i^i US 3: - - tai - sil-ldn' loa-vun as - - - sun - ta - - ai - - kai - sil - la - ni. (The bride wanders on her father's beautiful, chip-strewn courtyard, play- ing as a maid for the last time.) In Kem Carelia, north of the area to which the sung metrical runes pro- perly belong, there also occurs prose poetry of an epic nature, called joihi. The name joiku is also known up in Lapland, and even as far south as Ingria. The Carelian joiku poems have the same structure as the weeping songs, and are chief h' distinguished from them by their subjects; thus for example, a mo- ther or other female relation weeps for a young man who is away at the war, and a stranger, man or woman, sings a joiku. Then the joiku paints in moving language the thoughts of the warrior treading the paths of danger, and of the mother. Iji times of peace these songs generally describe the relations of young FENNIA 42 X(i. 3. 143 men and maidens. They often express the »public opinion* of the village with regard to the love adventures ojE a modern Lemminkainen. The poems being improvised, they are made to suit the actual time and conditions. There are clear traces of their use about five hundred years ago, showing how the Finn (vieromaalainen), »the man from the foreign land» visited Carelia (vil j elennassa viilehysrauan) »to cultivate the sharp -edged steel». The numerous scornful and insulting words, such as »Jieikko» (poor wretch), nlkio (villain), »inhu» (good-for-nothing), »kehno-», »kiero-», »kurja-», (mischief-maker), wainomaalai- nen» (enemy), clearly refer to the war of persecution on both sides of the fron- tier, of which we know from history. Now that the intercourse has become entire!}' friendly, these epithets are ordy used for the sake of alliteration and parallelism. The singer tries to remove the effect they might possibl)' have by the addition of friendly adjectives, such as »valoveri vainomoalain>> (the fair haired man from the hostile land) and>>kukkamarjakurjamoalain» (the flower- berry wretch), and even, in joiku language, urges the »stranger with the beaute- ous skin» (kauniveri kaihomoalain) to seek his beloved among the »fair birds of Carelia» (Karjalan kanasista). The name of the joiku songs, their structure — whether they come from north or south (Kuittijarvi) — and its likeness to that of the Ivapp joiku songs (for instance the use in both of the refrain, which is so characteristic of primi- tive poetr}'-), and finally the fact that they have the same structure as the weeping songs, all suggest the hypothesis that in the Carelian prose poetry we have the oldest remains of runes from verv' ancient times. It is easily proved by research, especiallj- in Ingria, that this primitive form of poetry gradually paves the waj" for metric poetrs', more developed in both structure and con- tent, and bequeaths to the latter the alliteration and parallelism from which it gets its beauty. Generally speaking, the same is the case with the melodies. Those for prose compositions are exceeding^ free in the structure of musical metre and strophe, while on the other hand the Kalevala metre demands much less variety in these respects. The length of notes and the scale, on the other hand, show^ man}- points of agreement. The calling melodies and herdsman's melodies are of the greatest interest in the history- of folk music. The former are used on forest expeditions and simi- lar occasions as signals, and the latter to call home the sheep and cows; they aie disappearing in Finland, but are still in use in East Carelia. In the sum- mer, the forests ring with the sounds of the birch-bark trumpets, %ith which the herdsmen frighten away the bears from the cattle. This practical necessity has kept alive a natural music the roots of which go back for thousands of vears. 144 .1 . (\ ['(hsditeii . I'( (.-try and Music Carelian herdsnuin's melodv J = 84. ^— ^1— I h — ^--h T—l^— ^ ; n — 3 J =:: ^ — ^1 *— • — I ^ LI Tpru-ko leh -- nia-scin, tpru-ko-sein, tpru-ko! (Tpru \\\y little cow. J= 144. Care'ian binhbark trumpet melody Up to now, the L;;reatest attention has been devoted to the compositions which we have become accustomed to calling the Kalevala lays. The constant, simple, runic metre is characteristic of these, quite apart from the contents. Research has shown that the}' originate from the time when the Baltic Finns still formed a single unity. It is noteworthy that East Carelia did not as a whole fall within the zone of the ancient metric compositions; almost the whole of southern Olonets is outside it. The lyric poetry, the Kanteletar lays, has chiefly been collected in Finnish Carelia. The emotional poetr\- of Ivist Carelia chiefly consists of the prose verse already described. The fact that there are but few remains of bridal poetry in East Carelia, compared with all that ha.s been lecorded from Ingria, does not mean that the wedding ceremo- nies were b\^ so nuich the poorer; where a metrical lay is sung in Ingria, the Ca- relian »weeping women» sing a corresponding weeping song. J = 69. Bridal Song from Kevi Carelia. Kok-ko len - ti koil - li - - - - ses - - ta, kok-ko len - ti ■S— rs- 3 ^.M. jj ^-'r^m — — ^»=iT=?= -_^=q^= koil - - - li ses - ta, is - ku - lin - - - tu il - man nl - • ta, is - ku - lin - - - tu il - - - man al - - tu. (The eagle flew up from the north east, the bird of prey Iron, the wide hca\-en, etc.) I Fig. 39. Boy from Kivijarvi. Photo /. K. Inha. Fig 40. Peasantry from the Village of Koikafj^ llinSajdrvi, Province of Povenets. Photo P. Eskola. Fig. 41. Herdsboy with Horn of Birch Bark. Province of Olonets. Photo A. O, Vdisdnen. Fig. 42. Kantele Player, Kem Carelia. Photo A. O. Vaisdnen. FI'XXIA 42 Xo. 3. 145 One reason why lyric poetry is more cultivated in Ingria, and also in Ivstho- nia, is that there singing is one of the female functions. But »women's wis- dom and children's memories do not belong to bearded heroes». Not till Care- lian soil is reached do we hear those »deep words of origin, which not all child- ren, nor all heroes sing». Only there,^in the deep solitudes, in the mysterious forests and by the rushing torrents, could those mournful, deep and soaring magic songs grow up, which form such an important part of the Kalevala. By magic and spells, by the power of wisdom, of knowledge and of words, the Carelians tried to make the conditions of their lives agreeable. They sought by magic songs help for the success of their home occupations, their hunting, fishing and cattle rearing, and mortal diseases were banished by spells and prayers, to which the Carelian seer joined deep runes of origin, believing that in them he knew the origin of the disease, and therefore could heal it. The P'innish spells are generally repeated in spoken language. There is no doubt that the most primiti\'e method was to sing them, and this is seen, for example, in the Lapps' sacrificial songs. However this may be, we know that \"ainamoinen charmed all nature with his kav.telc. The most beautiful creation of Finnish imagination is the descrip- tion in the runes of the making and playing of the kantele. The Finnish race has loved this instrument with a special affection. The kantele was most used in old Carelian territory', and there chiefly for dance music; it was also played in Olonets and in the south of Kem Carelia, up to the end of the last century. Our ancient Finnish five-stringed »Vainamoisen kantele» was most honoured for the performance of the melodies to which the ancient epic lays were sung, those runes which are combined into one whole in the Kalevala. This creation would have been impossible without frontier- and East-Carelia. It was from them, from their aged rune singers, that Lonnrot got the idea that these songs were fragments of a great epic which could still be reconstructed from them. He justly called the epic lie published in 1835 »Kalevala, or ancient Carelian runes from the past of the Finnish peopres». Typical Rime Melody [from Kem Cerelia) J.= 104. ^^jE^=^;EEj^^pfe^^3E^^ ^ lau-loi en-nen lap-pa - lai - ni, ve-jen van-hin vei-jot - te - li. S -9. 1 =^ W' • (tilpE ko - ta - poi - ka kol - kut- te - li vaa-ran vas - ki - sen la - kal - la, 146 Th. HoHien, Agriculture and Cattle Rearing. (In olden times the ancient Lapp sang, Raised his voice the water's oldest. The Lappish tent's son made notes jingle Up the copper mountain's fastness). Nearly a century has passed since Zachris Tof>elius the elder showed the way to the best finding places for epic lays. Lonnrot then made his ever me- morable expeditions to chronicle the lay.s, and Kem Carelia showed what trea- sures it possessed. Zealous efforts have been made to collect these treasures and bring them home to Finland, Many forest paths beyond the frontier can tell of Castren, in search of incantations, Europaus, our most persevering collec- tor of runes, Merildinen, who preserved the arts of magic; in Kem Carelia Borelius Ldhteenkorva began to glean the remnants which are so essential to research. The gigantic publication called »The Old Runes of the Finnish People» is the fruit of these collections. Thus were the songs and legends of our forefathers reconstructed, and in the course of the work, the former political frontiers began to recede as it were of themselves. And yet the successors of the »eternal seer» — Arhippa Perttunen, Ontrei Malinen, Vassila Kielovdinen and others too, will scarcely ever know or realise of what importance they have been to the Finnish people. It is impossible to hear without emotion the verses of the last great Carelian rune singer, which pray to God to help great Finland. (»Auttaos hyvii Jumala Tuota suurta Suomennienta»). It is as if there were concealed in these words not only a blessing, but also a prophecy, for the fulfilment of which our people is waiting. The sons of the rune singers are already taking part in the work of creating a new, great Finland. The whole people of Viiindla has awoken to the thought of the heroic song, that man after man goes out »to win another lucky ^^"^Po*- A. O. Vaisanen. III. ECONOMIC LIFE AND INTERCOURSE. I. Agriculture and Cattle Rearing. East Carelian agriculture is of small extent and primitive in its methods. The produce is therefore comparatively meagre. Burn-beating is discouraged by the state, and in some districts has almost died out, but methods have not thereb}' been improved in other respects. The backwardness of agricul- ture is not due to the climate, which is no severer than that of Finland, nor to the soil, which is similar to that in the interior of this country, and in places better. The reasons are to be sought in the general low grade of culture in this backward country, the lack of communications, and above all in the peculiar conditions of land ownership. It is difficult to judge how far it may also be that FKXXIA 42 No. 3. 147 the male population has no bent for agricultural work, as some who are acquain- ted with the country believe. I will only remark that this once free people has been crushed and oppressed, — as its sorrowful history shbws — ,the auth- orities have in every way restricted it in all its acts, even its right to the enjoy- ment of the soil, which the peasants may cultivate, but may not possess; is it then to be wondered at if they show ver}- little disposition for work the fruits of wliich they cannot be sure of retaining and leaving to their children, and they are more inclined to fortuitous earnings? It cannot therefore be concluded that they are not suited for, agriculture. The intelligence of the Carelians is generalh* recognised, and the husbandman, who has to direct his own labour, needs a high degree of intelligence, if he is to be successful. It cannot be sup- posed that a gift, for poetry- and music, and perhaps also a certain mysticism, need, generally speaking, interfere with the husbandry' of a population. These characteristics are generally accompanied bj- a love of nature and its beauty which attach a man to rural life and its pleasures. Let us now return to an examination of the external conditions which are essential to good husbandry'. We shall then shortly describe the present state of agriculture and it^ 3'ield. The climate has already been described. Our account of the geologj-, geo- graphy and natural histon,' of the country also gives an idea of the degree of fertility- and the possibilities of cultivating this territon,-. Dr. Linkola has been so good as to put together the results of botanical obser\'ations, with the spe- cial object of throwing light upon the productiveness of the soil. He has ap- plied a modern method of obtaining a survey of the fertility and different characteristics of the soil in different areas, by means of a cartographic record of the places in which carefully selected plants which require good or parti- cular kinds of soil, are found. This method is specially applicable to areas where agriculture has not itself yet afforded sufficient information on these points. Dr. Linkola himself writes about his procedure; — »As direct research into the quality of the soil of East Carelia and the Kola Peninsula has not A'et been carried out, it has been suggested that the ferti- lity of the soil might be estimated from the information at present available as to the flora and vegetation of the area. A number of investigations carried out in this country' during the last few years afford good hopes that this me- thod will prove satisfactory. All the information at present available as to the distribution over the area of the more exacting phanerogams and ferns which demand fertile habitats was collected from botanical literature {Bergroth, Brotherus, Cajander, Elf- ving, J. Fellman, N. I. Fellman, Hjelt, Kairamo, Kivilinna, Lindberg, Linden. 148 I i'. U"iiii}i, Agriculture- and Cattk- Rearing. Norrlin, V. Nyiander and Vainio), from botanical manuscripts {Bergroth, comi^rehending notes of four summer excursions, Brotherus, Cajander, Gilnthcr, Liiikola, SaJdbcr^, Vainio, etc.) and from the specimen plants in the university herbaria. Fi\'e different maps were then drawn showing the distribution of the more exacting species in the distiicts mentioned. For this purpose onl}' those species were taken into account which are distributed o\-er the whole area, including its northern portions, more or less independently' of climatologi- cal factors. — The maps show the distribution over the area in question of the more exacting plants which require respectively (1) luxuriant groves, (2) fertile forest bogs, (3) quagmires and flat marshes, (4) mountains^ (5) sheets of water. They show, mutuall}- supplementing and confirming each other, in which districts the soil is so fertile that the plants in question can occur. The close agreement of the botanical conditions shown by the maps can- not fail to attract attention, and the}- give in main outline a very informative surve}^ of the relative qualities o^ the soil. I have also drawn another map, in order to attain greater perspicuit}' and certaint}-, and in order to supplement the maps based on plants found, especially with regard to districts that are incompletely known, or from a botanical point of view entirely uninvestigated. In this other map I have used as the basis for investigation into the quality of the soil, not only botanical information but also general descriptions of the cHstrict (statements as to the barrenness or fertilit}- of the district, informa- tion as to the undergrowth in the forests, the growth of the trees, the haj' pro- duced by the bogs, etc.) These are found in the botanical publications and manuscripts already mentioned, and in other descriptions of travels from districts which have not been visited by botanists {Ervast, IiiJm, Lonnrot) and have also been obtained verbally from persons who have travelled in the dis- tricts in question {E. Ahtia, A. K. Cajander, L. Hannikainen, I. Harkonen and ] . E. Roshcrg). If the maps be examined with special reference to circumstances wliich are of importance for agriculture and forestry, they show in broad outline the following qualities of soil in the area in question; Really fertile soil well suited to agriculture is only found to any large extent in the southern part of tbe area, on the coastal belt round lake Onega, espe- cially on theZaonezhie peninsula, and thence for some distance inland in the districts to the west. In the W'epsian territory- also, northwards from the Svir, most of the soil is very fruitful. There is also fertile land round the middle and upper reaches of the Svir, and round the tributaries of that river; also in particular parts of Olonets which border on the Finnish parishes of Salmis rivXXIA 42 Xo. 3. 149 and Suojiirvi, as well as in the regions round Onega and v*>eesjarvi. The ferti- lity of these tracts is to some extent shown by the fact that they are inhabited by an agricultural population, which is numerically far the most important part of the population of East Carelia. There seem here to be good prospects for a much larger agricultural population, especially if bog-cultivation is assisted. Further north, fertile soil only occurs locally in rather scattered tracts and along the rivers. As far as can be judged, the only extensive area suitable for cultivation between the Uikujoki and the Kemijoki is the region round Tun- kue-Suikatjiirvi and Uskela, where the bogs, in particular, certainly furnish good soil. Along the coast of the White Sea there are extensive clay districts, as to the cultivability of which nothing can at present be said with certainty. » Dr. Linkola has collected information as to the occurrence in different tracts of about fifty species which are little affected by the variations of cli- mate within the area. He has then classified them in the five groups and ex- pressed these cartographicalh', as he explains above. In addition, the occur- rence of about 150 oth^r exacting plants has been noted, and these are consid- ered in the summary-. As the five botanical maps give remarkabl}' similar re- sults, we onl3" reproduce two of them, namely that for luxuriant groves and that for quagmires and marshes, wliich seem to be the two most informative for our purpose, together with the final resultant map showing the quality of the soil in the various regions. Dr. Linkola has himself described the re- sult, so that I need not here give it in more detail. The results with regard to forest plants are not quoted here. As Dr. Linkola says, the results agree with what is suggested by the agri- cultural conditions and density of population. There is particularly fruitful land north and west of Onega, and by the southern part of the present fron- tier, and further north also the soil is very good in some places. Specially noticeable is the generally excellent quality of the bogs, which are, however, almost entirely uncultivated, easy though their cultivation would be. An experienced agriculturalist said of them that »they sometimes make one's mouth water». The better quality of the bogs east of Maanselka, compared with those in this country, may be due to the amount of lime in the soil, which is frequent!}' greater east of that ridge. This is also noticeable in this country at Kuusamo, which is on the eastern side of Maanselkii. Thus the lower level of agriculture in East Carelia is not due to a specialh' disadvantageous climate or poor soil. It is the general poor conditions of civilisation, the backwardness of this part of the country in all spheres of life, — or to speak plainly, the oppression of the foreign, more powerful usur- per, — which has caused agriculture also to remain at so low a level. That 150 77/. Homen, Agriculture and Cattle Rearing. usurr.er has done nothing to im]iro\-e conditions, but much to hinder, to which has recently been added the ardent policy of denationalisation, and violent persecution of every one who tried to work for enlightenn;eut and improve- ment in any sphere. The govermnent has certainly established a couple of small agricultural schools — Russian ones of course, — and sent out a few agricultural experts, generally with a spying policeman following close on their heels (Fig. 46). No results worth mentioning have been observed from these measures. The most important and most obvious cause of the decay of agricultuie is the troublesome condition of land OK'nership. Stolypin's far-sighted land reform of 1910 in Russia, which divided up the land belonging to the village community and jointly owned by the different homesteads, so that each homestead obtained land which really belonged to it, has not yet been intro- duced into East Carelia. Only two, of the nianj^ travellers I have questioned about this, have reported work in this direction being done in a couple of vil- lages, and they could not state whether the reform had. really been carried out even in these. The reform here had been received with satisfaction. In other places where the reform had been talked of, those who knew about it received the idea with distrust. Thus there still prevails throughout East Carelia the well known, ancient institution of the niir (village communit}-). This is a survival from the time of serfdom in Russia, but changed, in that while the soil formerly belonged to the estate owner, and the village community, as such, paid him a tax for the right to use it, it is now owned by the village community, which pays a tax to the state, since the village community bought the land, the state acting as intermediar}'. It is true that the Russian serfdom was never introduced into East Care- lia; except on the few large estates which grew up during and after the time of Peter the Great, but after the Russian conquest (see historical section), con- ditions gradually so developed that the greater part of the soil belongs to the state. In the province of Kem the state owns practically all the land, while the different homesteads or households only have the right of usage of their res- pective portions of the land of the village community, as under the institu- tion of the mir. Both these rights of usage in the soil and the taxes to the state for which the village community as a whole is responsible, are shared out every fifteenth year or oftener, among those who have a right to a share, -- either the different homesteads or households, or the male population of the village, the custom differs somewhat in different cases. This division is made at a meeting of the whole community, i. e. of those who own shares, at which the FENNIA 42 Xo. 3. 151 >>eldest» (starosta) of the village is chairman. If the village community or obstchestvo includes several villages, as is usually the case in these three pro- vinces, the elderman of the commune (strashina) conducts the proceedings. As, however, those who own shares are responsible as a body for the payment of the taxes, and this is inexorably enforced, those who have any possessions are obliged in case of difficulty to pay for the whole, which is no encouragement to the improvement of agriculture by hard work, industry and thought. The last great division of the land took place in the j^ear 1896, and then all male individuals in the communities, including children, were allotted land to cultivate. The next great division ought to have taken place in 1911, but was not held, because both the Act of November 9th, 1906 (which was in the same direction as Stolypin's Act) and the hitter's Act of 1910, had then been promulgated. The children of 1896 are now grown up, and as the necessary adjustments (in case of death etc.) have been made yearly, it may be consid- ered that every male who wants to till the soil has land to cultivate. That is of course excellent, and some foreign writers have found in this institution an ideal solution of the problem of land for the unsettled. If any one moves away his land is given to others, but also idlers and those who have not been able to pay taxes may lose their right to the soil, and even be expelled from the village. All this may be an advantage. But it may also happen that many a poor wretch can succed in moving the chairman and those of influence in tlie community to clemency, for example by means of a good supper. It may also happen that some such wastrel can convince those who have to decide, that the poor results of his tillage are not due to his own neglect, but to his having been allotted a particularly bad piece of land. He may thus obtain a supple- mentary piece of good land, at the expense of some one who has got his land into such condition that he seems to have too much of the good soil. In general, however, all went well and justly in Carelia until at the begin- ning of this century the state began to extend its interference to these affairs. From the ruler of the government and the highest police authority, down to the bailiffs and lower police officials, not to speak of the authorities whose duty it was to supervise the zemstvos and the whole of the provincial self- government, all interfered in the affairs of the communes, village communities and villages. They persecuted every one who was suspected of working for the rights and interests of the communal institutions, and especially those who were denounced as opposing the methods ot russification then in progress, by means of Russian elementary' schools and other more violent methods. We know that regime only too well from the time of Bobrikoff and Seyn here in Finland, when adventurers and wastrels came to the top. On Carelian terri- 152 Th. Hoiiien, Aiirii-ultiirc and Cattle Rcariiu lory, any one who wanted more land or other advantages only needed to de- nounce another, and the one denounced was in every way persecuted. It was a liard time for all Carehans and Finns, and those who knew even a little Russian tried in every way to conceal their nationality from the authorities. This naturally had anything btit a favourable effect on the progress of agri- culture, here as elswhere. In passing now to the statistical treatment of the conditions of land owner- ship, we must state, unfortunately, that the figures available as to the areas owned by the .state, individuals and the village communities are very variable, and that this is due to a number of circumstances. First, the total area of the three provinces, including water, is given by Strelbitski as follows; Olonets 12,543 sq. km. (about 4,900 English sq. miles) Petrosavodsk 21,776 -> » » 8,500 » Povenets 45,709 > » -> 17,850 All three Provinces 80,028 » » » 31,250 According to planimetric measurements made on ojr maps the area is; Olonets 12,120 sq. km. Petrosavodsk 21,620 ■> » Povenets 44,785 > » All three Provinces 78,525 >> » The difference is fairly considerable, but has no significance here, as we are now seeking information with regard to the area of the la)id, and its division between the various interested parties. It is more serious that the figures in this respect also are very variable. It becomes therefore necessary to quote a few different calculations. This may perhaps also prove of service to anj^ one who may need data as to the conditions of land ovv'nership and area in these districts, and finds in the vari- ous sources the figures given below, or even others, and soon notices that these do not agree with the corresponding figures given in other works. The area of the three provinces, excluding ivatcr, has been given as follows; Olonets Petrosavodsk Povenets All three provinces I. by Strelbitsky 9,234 II. rvarious \ 10,814 9,523 8.260 III. official IV. 'sources 14,935 40,105 64,274 sq. km 15,577 40,973 67,364 » » 15,462 40,880 1 65,865 » » 13,656 39,060 60,976 » » DISTRIBUTION IN EAST CAKeIiA AND nOLA LAPMARR OF TtJE HQ^ e:xacting plants which require ^ fertile. grove-lire habitats DISTRIBUTION IN I:AST CARSLIA AND nOLA LAPMARn OF TK£ KOT^E EXACTING PLANTS WHICH OROW- i^^r«*p ij^ QUAGMIRi:S AND QUAGMIRi:- ^± _i LIRE MARSH LAND 50 — ^- t3 7* DISTRIBUTION IN I:AST CAKELIA AND nOLA LAPMARH OF TMt Rote '^V^. EXACTING PLANTS WHICH OROW- ^r'l'^,^ IN QUAGMIRi:S AND QUAGMIRi:' LIRE MARSH LAND t3 » «> 62 &^ 6« S« M 1 1 ; , ^ QUALITY or THE SOIL :N EAST 1 CARELIA AND nOLA LAPMARW ^^ AS DEDUCED FROM BOTANICAL V^ 3v-r.« INFORMATION AND GENERAL DESCRIPTIONS I QUALITY or THE SOIL :N EAST j CARELIA AND nOLA LAPMARJ1 ^^ AS DEDUCED FROM BOTANICAL V^^^p^-*- INFORMATION AND GENERAL r^^^ DESCRIPTIONS ,FENNIA 42 No 3. 153 Some of these differences are very large. They may parth' arise from differing figures obtained by the measurement or estimation of the areas of the land owned in different ways, from which the totals for each district have been compiled, and partly also from different views of the actual conditions of ownership, so that the same piece of lard may on different occasions have been placed in different categories, and so either counted twice or entirely omitted in calculating the total. The following short exposition will show- how vague the distinction between different systems of ownership are, so that sometimes even the three main categories, ownership b}" the state or public institutions, by private owners, and by village communities, are them- selves somewhat indefinite. Various writers and staticians also complain that the}' have been unable to obtain from others clear information as to tliis and that condition, owing to the various meanings of the terms in differ- ent contexts. The same difficult}' has also caused us no small trouble. The differences between the figures from sources I. II. and III. are great, but those from source IV. differ still more widel}^ from all the rest. This ma}' possibly be due to the large tracts of land belonging to the mines under state control being here omitted. The category of land belonging to »the state and public institutions* usually includes both land owned directly by the state, and that belonging to mines, the towns, and monasteries, the church land, appanage lands, and the smaller areas belonging to other institutions. The land belonging to mines in these three provinces forms a total of 8,332 sq. km. (far the largest part of it in the province of Petrosavodsk) and if added to the figures of 60,976 sq. km. given for the total area of this province would therefore give an even higher figure than the other calculations. If each pro- vince is taken by itself, there is even less agreement. A large number of cir- cumstances into which we cannot go here may have contributed to the very various results shown by the different calculations. It seems certain that the results of calculation III. come nearest to the truth, and that is therefore the one used in what follows. We now turn to the division of the land between the three main categories of owners; the state and public institutions, private owners, and the peasant communities. Happily, the figures dealing with ownership by communi- ties, which are for us the most important, seem to be fairly reliable. They are based on careful investigations by the zemstvo of the government of Olonets, made when M. Kusnetsoff was chairman, and they are regarded by all writers on the subject as particularly reliable. But for these investiga- tions, it would have been practically impossible for us to give any statistical treatment of the conditions of agriculture and land-ownership in these three .FEXNIA 42 No 3. 153 Some of these differences are very large. They may partly arise from differing figures obtained by the measurement or estimation of the areas of the land owned in different ways, from which the totals for each district have been compiled, and partly also from different views of the actual conditions of ownership, so that the same piece of lard may on different occasions have been placed in different categories, and so either counted twice or entirely omitted in calculating the total. The following short exposition will show- how vague the distinction between different systems of ownership are, so that sometimes even the three main categories, ownership by the state or public institutions, by private owners, and by village communities, are them- selves somewhat indefinite. Various writers and staticians also complain that they have been unable to obtain from others clear information as to this and that condition, owing to the various meanings of the terms in differ- ent contexts. The same difficulty has also caused us no small trouble. The differences bet\\'een the figures from sources I. 11. and III. are great, but those from source lY. differ still more wideh' from all the rest. This may possibly be due to the large tracts of land belonging to the mines under state control being here omitted. The category of land belonging to »the state and public institutions* usually includes both land owned directly by the state, and that belonging to mines, the towns, and monasteries, the church land, appanage lands, and the smaller areas belonging to other institutions. The land belonging to mines in these three provinces forms a total of 8,332 sq. km. (far the largest part of it in the province of Petrosavodsk) and if added to the figures of 60,976 sq. km. given for the total area of this province w^ould therefore give an even higher figure than the other calculations. If each pro- vince is taken by itself, there is even less agreement. A large number of cir- cumstances into which we cannot go here may have contributed to the ver>' various results showm by the different calculations. It seems certain that the results of calculation III. come nearest to the truth, and that is therefore the one used in what follows. We now turn to the division of the land between the three main categories of owners; the state and public institutions, private owners, and the peasant communities. Happily, the figures dealing with ownership by communi- ties, which are for us the most important, seem to be fairly reliable. They are based on careful investigations by the zenistvo of the government of Olonets, made when ]\I. KusneTSOFF was chairman, and they are regarded by all writers on the subject as particularly reliable. But for these investiga- tions, it would have been practically impossible for us to give am^ statistical treatment of the conditions of agriculture and land-ownership in these three 154 Th. Honini. Agriculture and Cattk- Rearing. provinces. The figures as to private land-ownership seem also to be fairly trustworthy. There may, however, be some uncertainty in both these groups, from a member of a community also buying himself a plot of land, and not necessarily a small one, either from persons belonging to the same^ commu- nit\- wlio have otliei occupations than agriculture, or from private owners or from the state land. There are also cases of land being rented for periods of forty years from the state, and possibly also from other owners. Areas of land oivned by the state, by private oivners, and by peasant communities, expressed in hectares and in percentages of the total area of the district. * Province i Land area of the province Land belonging to the state and public institutions Land belonging Land belonging to private to the village owners commmiities hectares % hectares ^ hectares % Olonets Petrosavodsk Povenets .... Whole area . . 952,339 1546,189 4,088,032 6 586 560 499,189 1 52 42 601,625 38.91 3,447,349 84.33 4,548,163 69 05 4,722 62,356 3,656 70,734 0.50 4^3 0.09 1.07 448,428 882 208 637,027 1,967 663 47.09 i 57.06 15.58 , 29.88 As we see, there is but little land belonging to private individuals, only 4 ^/o of the whole in the province of Petrisavodsk, 0.5 "/^ in Olonets, and not as much as O.i % in Povenets. In Olonets the peasants and the state each own about half of the soil, in Petrosavodsk the peasants have rather more and the state rather less than half, but in the extensive and slightly cultivated province of Povenets, the state owns over 84 ^j^ and the peasants not quite I6O/0 of all the land. Land belonging to the state and public institutions, expressed in hectares. Province The state The towns Religious houses The '.^'\'' ^^--1^ tSioL Total Olonets Petrosavodsk Povenets .... Whole area. . 487.184 573,872 3.420,363 4,481,419 5,282 16,682 21,616 43,580 5,263 7 250 4 991 17,504 1,446 3812 371 5,629 ,4 9 8 31 499,189 601,625 3.447,349 4,548.163 FIvXXIA 42 Xo. 3. 155 This table shows ronghly how the land belonging to the state and public institutions is divided between the various bodies. We include under land belonging to the state the so-called »mines land», which is administered by the Mines Board, or now to some extent by the Board of Forestn.", but naturally belongs to the state. Thus, in comparision with the state-owned area, all the other institutions have very small shares, though those owned by the towns, of which there is one in each province, are in themselves quite considerable. The religious houses', and especially the church's land, i. e. the glebe, is on the other hand strikingh' small, in relation to the large areas in which one usualh' reckons in these pro- vinces. As the only religious house in the province of Povenets, which was also the onl}^ nunnery in East Carelia, »The Convent of the Mother of God», was dissolved in the year 1890, it is possible that its land accrued to the state, or was otherwise disposed of, seeing that some statistics give no land at all in Povenets as belonging to religious houses. The land belonging to private individuals was in the year 1906 distributed as follows; Land belonging to private owners, expressed in hectares. Province Xobles Merchants Peasants" Industries Total Olonets Petrosavodsk Povenets .... Wliole area . . 2,664 4 685 1,714 9,063 659 9,439 1,941 12,039 1,399 45.904 47,303 2,328 2,328 4,722 62,356 3 655 70,733 These figures show that there is in Petrosavodsk a comparativelj- large amount of land belonging privately to the peasants. Otherwise there is but little land in private hands, whether nobles', merchants' or industries (exclud- ing state industries). We now pass to what is for us the most important question, namely the ownership and cultivation of land by the peasant communities. Even though the land was divided at the great division of 1896 among all the males, the father of a family naturally administers the children's share, as their natural guardian. The son of an agricultural peasant in East Carelia almost always marries very young, and thus there come to be several families in the same homestead. (Uimiarried men are so rare among the land-owning population that the word »purlakka» is used both for a batchelor and for one 156 Th. Uonicn, Agriculture iind Cattle Rearing. who owns no hmd). In the north of I^ast Carelia it is more usual for tlie young families to form households of their own on the old homestead, but in the three provinces with which we are now specially dealing all the inliabitants of the homestead usually form a single household, one large family. This is ruled fairly strictly b>' the »elder of the honiestead», which however does not always mean the same as the oldest in years, whom all must obey. We use the word »homestead» therefore, as it is used in the re])ort of the Olonets govern- ment zemstvo, although it is possible that the primary figures on which the statistics are based sometimes refer to households, as the average number of persons on these homesteads (the rural population divided by the number of homesteads) is scarcely seven in Petrosavodsk and Povenets, and only five in Olonets. The number of village communities, villages and homesteads is as fol- lows; Nitmher of village communities, villages and homesteads in the year igo2. Zi ■i?,^ \' i 1 1 a g e s Homesteads o 5 "> Province j ;^ ^ ^ In the province In the community In the province In the community In the village 1 V conn in the max. ave- rage min. Olonets Petrosavodsk Povenets .... Whole area . . 129 121 180 430 557 663 393 1,613 34 37 64 64 4.32 5.48 2.18 3.75 1 1 1 1 7,800 12,304 4,417 24.521 60.47 ' 14 00 101.60 1815 24 54 11.21 57.03 15.20 As this table shows, and is also well known, the villages in this region are fairly large, averaging about fifteen homesteads. The village communities contain an average of three to four villages and fifty-seven homesteads, but they usually consisc of one, two or three villages, while in exceptional cases there may be scores. The following figures show the extent of the land lield. The term produc- tive land is here used to include arable, meadow, pasture and burn-beaten land, and productive forest, and also building sites, in accordance with the usual custom. Waste land includes bogs and marshes, and as these are often of excellent quality, the area of land which could be utilised is really lather FlvXXIA 42 No. 3. 157 larger and the waste land less than the figures in the corresponding columns show. Average area of land per villagi' community, per village and per homestead , expressed in hectares. Per community Per villa ge Per ! liomestead i V D (U > > > Province ■ % c +J r— ! ir. a c3 • 1e o ^ Jh ^ C-H t3 TO O ^ H u u >-( CU 0. (Jlonets 2,551 925 3,476 591 214 805 42.2 15.3 57.5 1 Petrosavodsk . . 4,741 2,550 7,291 865 465 1,331 57.4 25.1 71.7 Povenets 2,018 1,521 3,53 -t 924 697 1621 82.2 62.0 144.2 i Whole area .... 2,944 1,632 4,576 785 435 1,220 51.6 28 6 80.2 This gives for each homestead an average of eighty hectares of land, of which over fifty hectares are productive. In the province of Povenets the cor- responding figures are over 140 and 80. The land belonging to a village aver- ages 1,200 andthatof the communities about 4,600 hectares. In Petrosavodsk, however, the communities run larger, with an average of about 7,300 hectares. The productive land forms about two-thirds of the whole, or if the easily cultivable bogs are included in this categor}', somewhat more. It must here be noted that a number of homesteads in Petrosavodsk have also been able to buy some land of their own, and that in 1905 the ground thus alienated to private ownership amounted to 45,799 hectares, or 5. i ^/q of the land be- longing to the communities. In the province of Olonets, land thus redeemed amounted -to 1,396 hectares, or 0.4? o/^ of that belonging to the communities. This kind of redemption has not taken place in Povenets. It may further be iToticed that some of those who own shares in the communities, such as mer- chants, smaller craftsmen, etc., have only their house-plot out of the common land, and that this is regarded as their own (i. e., it cannot tie exchanged or shared out to any one else) but that nevertheless they are liable to share in the joint taxation of the community in respect of these plots. This forms a kind of tax on building lots, as opposed to the usual taxation in the communi- ties, which is calculated on agricultural land. This makes the shares in the land belonging to real tillers of the soil slightly larger than the averages shown in the above table. 158 / /.'. Honii'ii. Agriculture iiiid Cattle Rearing' T A B Kinds of Land belonging to the Peasant Petrosavodsk and Povenets of the Govern P r t) V i n o e and C o in ni u n e o PL, n T) c3 u o vj -t-l in "^ oded past and burn- leaten lafi 4-' X >-> -0 • > p tageofplo d to the t belonging ommuniti lit of ploi id per ho: '. in hecta ! 1 - 2 (^ tars 1622 7 1,610.0 33,989.0 18,264.9 56,081.1 0.98 0.93 4,953.9 3,261.2 51,227.9 27,131.9 88,459.1 2.07 1.86 3,439.1 780.4 33,463.7 10,989.8 50,687.5 3 77 1.86 2,387.7 1,797 9 25.277.4 6,209.7 36824.5 2.97 1.78 5,848.6 53.1 22,943.3 9,114.9 41,702.0 8.53 2.74 3,167 7 2,076.6 45,123.9 20,978.7 73,030.0 2.16 1.46 4,368.6 80.5 33,192.0 14,190.8 55,175.4 5.80 2.52 2 345.6 536.1 29,749.0 12 396.9 46,469.1 2.94 1.47 28,133 9 10,195.8 274,966.2 119,286.6 448,428.7 3.37 1.94 4 952.2 737.5 51.834.1 50,876.1 110.638.4 1.96 2.11 I 6,236 9 1,033.1 73 696.2 53,965.7 137,735.8 1.97 ^-.10 ! 10,944.8 379.6 56,661.9 21,636 6 94,514.9 5.06 •..93 12 890.9 118.6 34.6047 19,330.1 72,945.9 8.02 .40 8,420.7 1,847.9 66,400.9 62,982.5 142,668.2 2.06 2.30 j 7.872.7 175.3 37,364.9 22,024.5 70,357.2 3.97 2.17 1 5,183.8 1,807.8 38,031.1 28.5068 74,958,0 1.86 2.18 ' 6,476 8 117.7 35,728.2 26,775.3 70,947.7 2.47 1 49 7,3798 506.9 56,929.0 12,107.6 80,332.8 4.60 1 96 2,353.7 0.8 13.485.9 10.339.2 27,109.2 3.21 1.42 72,712.3 6,725.2 464,736.9 308,544.4 882,208.1 3.23 2.31 1,394.5 31.8 26,944.8 28,948.5 57.807.9 0.81 1.26 1,334.3 154.3 58,744.7 77 894.0 138,470.4 0.23 1.20 1,756.7 461.6 36 280 5 29.932 1 68,853.4 57 1.10 2.139.7 590.7 64,384.2 28,437.4 96,743.7 1.18 1.75 2 057.4 83.1 27,244.1 32,686.0 62,670.9 0.89 1.24 2752.6 2,835.5 56.469.7 43,545 5 106,761.8 1.02 1 69 5,655.5 590 7 37,533.7 20,874.8 68,476.1 5.37 3.00 1,569.6 57.2 14,216.9 7,779.4 24,181.2 2.13 1.67 795.6 292.4 7,860 6 3,77l6 13061,5 ' 3.22 280 • 19,455 8 5,007.3 329,679.2 273.869.3 637,026.9 1.35 1.93 120,302 21,928.3 1,069,382.3 701,700.3 1,967.663.7 '' 2.65 2.13 160 Tit. Honicn. Agriculture aud Cuttk- Rearing. As is shown b>- the figures quoted, the peasants have a fair amount of land, but this bright side of the question is completely changed when we notice how little of all this fertile land is really culti\-ated, and how primitive the method of cultivation is. This is shown by table I., com- piled from the \'ery detailed figures given by thezemstvo of the government, which show the extent of cultivation in the various communes of the three I^rovinces now under consideration. (^) This table shows that cultivated land forms only a small percentage of the total area owned by the communities; — 2.65 ^/^in the whole region, some- thing over 3.37 o/p and 3.23^0 in the provinces of Olonets and Petrosavodsk, but in Povenets onl}' 1.35 o/^. The results of table I. are shown graphically in diagram I. The circles are drawn round the most important place in each commune, and the different coloured sectors represent the proportional extent of the different kinds ot land belonging to the communities in the communes, the whole circle thus representing the whole area of land belonging to these comnuinities. The map is drawn to the scale of 1; 200,000, so that a square centimetre on the map represents 400 square kilometres, or 40,000 hectares. As these provinces include scarcely any cultivated land other than that belonging to the com- munities, the size, or rather smallness of the narrow yellow sectors which in- dicate ploughed land gives a good idea of the conditions in these regions. All the land described as meadow is natural. Sown meadow land is still only to be found in a few scattered places in the south, and, in the north, nearSees- Table I. and the corresponding graphic map I. show how botli the area owned by the communities and in particular the area of ploughed land increas- es from the north-west to south-east, or towards the shores of Lakes Ladoga and Onega. In the north-west the circles on the map which indicate land be- longing to the communities are small and thinly scattered, while in the south and south-east they are much larger and overlap. The proportion betv^-een the ploughed land and the whole area owned by the village comnuinities again, rises in the province of Povenet>' from 0.23 ^/^ at Repola, in the north-west near the Finnish frontier, to 5.37 o/^ at Suiiku on the Suurlahti arm of Onega, in Petrosavodsk from about 2 °/o in the regions- round Munjar\'i to 8°/q at (^) Since the above statistics for the year 1902 were compiled the number of communes has been increased by the formation of new ones, namely one new conunuue in Olonets, two in Petrosavodsk and one in Povenets. This does not affect the final totals for the different provinces. 61\ lvi:XXIA 42 Xo. 3. 101 Tulvoja on the shore of the Suurhihti arm just mentioned, and in ( )lonets from 0.9S ^/q in Tuleniajarvi to 8.=>3 ^/^ at Ripuskalas south east of the former pla- ces. 'Die following little table is comi)iled from the figures in ta1)le I. and shows The kinds of land oicned by tJie communities expressed in penenla^es of their toted property. Province P>nil(ling sites Ploughed land Xatural ^Meadow Wooded Pasture, and burn- beaten land Forest b-g- swamp and waste land Olonets 0.17 3 ::7 6 27 2.27 61.32 26.6U Petrosavodsk O.r.' 3.23 8.24 0.76 ; 52.68 34.97 Povenets .... 0.07 1.3o 3. (.15 0.79 51.75 42. w Whole area. . O.u 265 6.11 1.11 1 54.35 35 66 ■ Here we see that ploughed land and natural meadow together form B.Tti "/^ of the land belonging to the communities in the whole area, namely 4.40 ^/^ in Povenets, Wat^Jq in Petrosavodsk, and in Olonets 9.64 o/^; wooded pas- ture and burn-beaten land form l.ii ^j^; and are most frequent in Olonets, where they constitute 2.27 *•/(,. Forest is about 54 ^Jq, highest in Olonets with 61 "/q. Bogs and waste land come to about 36% and are lowest in Olonets, or 26.6 o/„. It is i)ossible to make an instructi\-e comparision of agricultural conditions in Kast Care'ia and in I'inland, b> using the accurate account published by the well known »subcomittee» appointed in 1902 to enquire into the conditions of agriculture and the rural population; (H.\nnes Gebh.\kd; Atlas de statis- tique sociale sur les communes rurales de Finlande en 1901,Societe de geogra- phie de Kinlande 1908). It is here in place to denote the extent of cultivated land not onh- as a proportion of the total amount of land owned b>- the culti- vators, but also in proportion to the total land area of the three provinces. Now we know that the cultivated land in Hast Carelia other than that belong- ing to peasant communities is exceedinp-ly little, except in the province of Petro savodsk and that there too it is of no great significance. In the following table therefore, we show the ploughed land owned by the communities expressed as a percentage first of the total area belonging to them, and then of the total land area of the province. The I'^innish committee already mentioned has pre- 11 Fi;XXI.\ 42 Xo. 3. 161 Tulvoja on the shore of the Suurhihti arm just mentioned, and in ( )lonets from Om^/q in Tulemajarvi to 8/->3 "/j, at Ripuskalas south east of the former pla- ces. Tlie following little table is compiled frf)m the figures in table I. and shows TJie kinds of land oicned by tlie communities expressed in percenlages of tJieir totid property. - Province Building sites Ploughe land d Xatural Meadow Wooded Pasture, and burn- beaten land Forest Bog. swamp ; and waste land Olonets 0.17 3:;7 6 27 2.27 61.32 26.60 Petrosavodsk 0.12 3.2:^ 8.24 0.76 52.68 34.97 1 Povenets .... 0.07 1.35 3.05 0.79 51.75 42.119 Whole area. . 0.11 2 65 6.U 1.11 54.35 35 66 ' Here we see that ploughed land and natural meadow together form H.tc o/^, of the land belonging to the coniniunities in the whole area, namely 4.40 "/^ in Povenets, 11.47"/^^ in Petrosavodsk, and in Olonets 9.64 "y'^j; wooded pas- ture and burn-beaten land form l.n "/„; and are most frequent in Olonets, \\here they constitute 2.27 <*/(,. Forest is about 54 ^j^, highest in Olonets with 61 "/q. Bogs and waste land come to about 36 **/(, and are lowest in Olonets, or 26.6 o/o. It is po.ssible to make an instructive comparision of agricultural conditions in ICast Care'ia and in F'inland, b} using the accurate account published by the well known »subcomittee» appointed in 1902 to enquire into the conditions of agriculture and the rural population; (Hannes Gebhakd; Atlas de statis- tique sociale sur les communes rurales de F'inlande en 1901,,Societe de geogra- phic de F'inlande 1908). It is here in place to denote the extent of cultivated land not onh- as a proportion of the total amount of land owned b}' the culti- vators, but also in proportion to the total land area of the three i)rovinces.. ^o\\ we know that the culti\'ated land in liast Carelia other than that belong- ing to peasant comnumities is exceedim^ly little, except in the province of Petro savodsk and that there too it is of no great significance. In the following table therefore, we show the ploughed land owned b>- the communities expressed as a percentage first of the total area belonging to them, and then of the total land area of the province. The Innnish committee already mentioned has pre- 11 162 77/. H allien. Agriculture and Cattle Rearing. pared statistics of the arable area in each of the communes of Finland. As the state and forest companies own comparatively little cultivated land, we can here too, without jjerceptibly invalidating the com])arision with Kast Carelia, denote the amount of ploughed land in each province on the one hand as a percentage of the total land possessed by the land-owners, and on tlie other hand as a percentage of the total area of the pro\-ince. Area of ploughed land, expressed as a percentage of all the land belonging to the cultivators and of all the land in the province. Province Area of ploughed land, expressed as a percentage of the land belonging to ' all the land in the the cultivators province Fuilan.l Carelia East i ^. , ^1 East Fmland ^^^^^.,^ Finland i ^^^^^^ Nyland AboandBjorneb. Tavastehus .... \'asa St. Michel \'iborg Kuopio Uleaborg .... Whole country . Olonets Petrosavodsk Povenets Wliole area. . 18.75 — 16.65 — 17.84 — 15.29 — 14.27 — 11.85 — 11.72 ' - 9.51 — 6.45 — 5.61 — 6.54 — 5.22 — 4.40 — . 3.11 — — S.S? 1 — 1.58 — 3.23 i — 1.84 1.99 ' — 0.56 — — 1.35 — 0.21 8.48 2.65 4.72 0.79 The table shows, as was of course to be expected, how enormously less cul- tivation there is in East Carelia than in Finland, especially when the ploughed area is compared with the total area of the provinces. Cultivation is by no means widespread in Finland, but whether the tilled land is compared with the total owned by the tillers or with the whole land area cf the province, Olonets and Petrosavodsk have their place between the two least culti^•ated pro\-inces of I'inland, namely Kuopio and Ule&borg, while ctiltivation in Po\enets is far lower even than in these provinces, although Ule&borg in- cludes the whole of Lapland, and vast state forests. Cultivation is certainly better in the south of the province of Povenets, on the shores of Lake Onega, but it is so much tlie poorer in the other parts, as we saw from table I. Fl'NXIA 42 Xo. 3. 163 If we regard the tilled land from the point of view of the tillers, i. e. consi- der how much arable land there is per liomestead, we see again, and perhaps most clearly of all, how very little tillage there is in East Carelia. Although the homesteads in the communities have an average of 57.5 hectares inOlonets, 71.7 in Petrosavodsk and 144.2 in Povenets, the average amount of tilled land per homestead is in Olonets only 1.94 hectares, in Petrosavodsk 2.31 and in Povenets 1.93. The amount of cultivation per homestead is also rather greater in the so\ith-ea^t of these provinces, but in the north of Olonets and in Povenets it goes down to about one hectare, and in Tulemajiirvi (in Olonets) it is only 0.93 hectares. We return to these conditions after our account of agricvilture in Kem Carelia. Natural meadoxc is two to three times as extensive as arable land, or in Olonets 3.61 hectares per farm, in Petrosavod.sk 5.93 and in Povenets 4.40. These meadows are often at a very considerable distance from the homesteads. The rotation is from of old in three shifts; the first year rye, the second oats or barley, and the third fallow. The fields are nostly unditched, and very poorly manured. The implements used are the forked plough and harrow of brushwood (Fig- 43) which were in olden times general in Finland, and are still in use in the more remote part's of Finnish Carelia. The women take part in outdoor work. Although burn-beating has almost entirely died out in the province of Kem, further to the north, since the state has managed to suppress it on its own land, and the peasant conmiunities there own so very little, this mode of cultivation is still in regular use in the three pro\-inces now under conside- ration, and evers" homestead has an area where it may burn-beat (Fig. 44). The period between the burnings is ver\- short, usuall}- between six and twelve years, which is a sign of fertile land. It is possible to travel long distances through the bush-grown burn-beaten regions without coming upon real forest. The area burnt each 3-ear is given as 1.30 hectares per homestead in Olonets, 0.55 in Petrosavodsk, and 0.60 in Povenets, but what is called »wooded pas- ture) is sometimes included in this calculation. Table 11. gives the figures of sowing and harvest. The sowing and ha}-- harvest are taken from the statistics furnished by the zemstvo of the govern- ment. The grain har\-est on the other hand, is estimated (in default pf any better method) by adjusted calculations from the amount of corn sown, by agricultural experts who have travelled in the region in question and studied agricultural conditions there. These adjusted figures are rather too high than too low. As the quantities sown and har\'ested arc in Finland generall}' given in hectolitres, the data which were originally given in poods are here reduced I(i4 I'll. HoiiK'ii. As^rirulluri.' and Caltli- Rt-ariiitr. 'J' A B Soviii<^ and Harvest in the Provhues of Olonets, vS o w n 1' r () V i n I' (.■ and C () ni HI u n f u o o 3 • >. ! y. rt v: -M •— I 0; JIJ cJ t:; n a> "^ i:^ ■f. H Provuicc of Olonets: Tuleiiiajiirvi 593 Vieljiirvi 987 \idele 1,027 Kotkatjjirvi ■ 614 Riipuskala , 1,300 \aasheui 1,083 Xjekkiila 1,269 Matysova 928 Total 7,800 873 2,185 1,835 1,814 2,785 1,615 2,641 1.090 2,386 6,644 4,395 2.934 6,585 3,766 6,127 2,519 251 420 340 251 361 455 290 298 Piori)ice of Petrosavodsk . Munjarvi Kontupohja Sunrlahti Tulvoja Saaniajarvi Siioju Pyliajarvi I.adva Sontjarvi ( )stre.sliiui 14.838 35 356 2 666 1,026 1.295 1,630 1,721 1,279 1,286 638 1.177 1 638 6l4 1,662 1,928 3,551 4,049 2,079 2.032 1.197 1,204 2,296 621 3.928 5,113 9,080 1 1 .529 5 637 5,421 3,31 <; 3,483 5,960 1.721 588 619 436 774 489 570 448 318 456 107 1 0.2 Total 12,304 20 619 55,188 Proviiue of Povenels: Riikajarvi Repola Porajarvi Paadeuc Petrov.sko-Jani Manly.sclka Sunkii Danilova Riniskaja 4,805: 1.6 368 261 357 650 451 647 1,224 309 150 246 2.o6 426 787 311 871 2.256 348 237 242 48 242 106 343 1 552 6,423 290 830 469 300 338 048 434 558 634 246 77 0.4 0.4 0.4 Whole art-a Total 4,417 24,521 5.738 41,195 10,076 3,704 100,620 11.175 l2 4.1 0.2 0.9 11 0.2 2 0.2 ' 0.2 1 0.4 1 . 03 3 i 1.3 5 0.2 0.2 4 12.1 21.1 0.6 0.6 2 2 51 56.2 0.2 0.2 100 31 0.4 0.4 0.9 5 138.1 2 0.9 02 0.2 0.2 0.6 4.1 198.4 Fi;XXIA 42 No. 3. J. IC II. Pelrosavodsk and Povenets in the yun igo2. 165 'A 1 tj H a r V e .s t e d i 1 ! ■r. u: -M -iJ ti u. U "ti Hay +^ ^ »j-i c^ 6 pq t -t-> '~' ^ t (. 1 i t r e s kg. 696 20 49 4375 9,544 1,004 1 3,480 1,860,244 I 921 87 159 10,925 26 576 1,680 4,605 5,622,386 1,483 52 49 9,175 17,580 1,360 7,415 5,375,588 842 242 49 9,070 11.736 1,004 1 4.210 3.146,696 ; 1.935 79 2 13,925 26.340 1,444 9,675 7,262,237 .. 1,653 73 25 8,075 15.064 1,820 1 8,265 4 186.908 1 2,013 107 0.8 13,205 24 508 1,160 2 10,065 5.849,478 | 1,354 58 718 1 5,465 10,076 1.192 15 6,770 2,868,728 ! 10.897 334.8 ia:i\^ 141,424 10,664 6.5 54.485 36,172,265 1,404 73 73 8,310 11,784 2,352 1 7,020 5.073,181 1.686 86 46 9,640 15,339 2.476 8.430 6,333,049 1,704 108 7 17,755 27,240 1,744 1 8,520 11,426,098 1,915 184 92 20,265 34.587 3,096 9,575 13,097,333 1,533 131 209 10,395 16,911 1,956 7,665 9 776.501 1,974 89 6 10,160 16.263 2.280 9,870 8,281,089 918 59 37 5,985 9,948 1.792 4,590 5,026,383 1,783 59 6 6,020 10,449 1 272 5 8,915 6.520,174 2,907 110 4 11,480 17,880 1,824 1 1 14,535 7,699,829 759 66 3,105 5.163 428 1 3,795 2,461.062 16,583 965 480 103,115 165,564 j 19,220 \ 8 82.915 ' 75.694,699 5.485 32 965 148.5 1,831.5 381 0.5 10 1,231 484 1,407 366 1 48 1.285 96 900 393 9 83 2,130 i 484 1,014 495 13 82 3,935 212 1,944 708 8 2,555 686 1.302 776 34 115 4,355 1 3,104 1 674 1.908 75 22 11,335 12,846 1,902 324 4 9 1,740 580 738 134 12 2 1 185 i 1,660 231 1,524 1,464: 1,572 1,980 2,832 3.104 7,632 1,296 536 1,788,254 1,429,253 1.778,246 2,500,620 2,291,628 3,694,656 6.918,240 1,808,532 992,284 379 28,751 20 152 11,112 6 ! 21,940 23,201,713 1,193.8 206,081 327.140 40.996 20.5 |159,340 135,068,677 16() ^ !>■ UuDien. Agricultiut- ;ui r\ ^. -o ^ Potatoes and t^. Rye Oats | Barley ^^j^^^ ^^^^^ ; Hay 1896- 1905 1906—1910 2,710,496 2 997,740 37.:! 51.2 200.6 183.7 87.8 97.7 36.9 34o 152.2 179.9 about 700 These tables show that if the harvest of the Kast Carelian provinces be compared with the natural rate of consumtion, it does not suffice to cover the needs of the countr}' itself. We are now .specialU' referring to the compari- sion between the harvest and the consumption of rye and wheat. If the amount requisite for seed corn be subtracted, there remains from the harvest of the Carelian pro\-inces only about 80 kilogrammes per inhabitant, while in Fin- land the consumption of these grains is between 230 and 240 kilogrammes per head annuall}-. The similarity of climate, country and race between Finland and East Carelia obliges one to picture the consumption of corn per indi- \idual in the two countries as somewhat the same, or at least as tending to- wards similarity. It may certainly be argued that in Finland a fairly large quantity of rye is used as strong food for horses and cows, but the number of cows, and especialh' of horses per inhabitant is considerably larger in the three East Carelian provinces than it is in Finland — as will be shown pre- sently, and a.s is also comprehensible, as almost the whole population there is engaged in agriculture and goods must for the most part be conveyed by to wl 70 frc ca; CO) CO CO) of frc Tf urc of fig CO] lat in ho ye; tio of th( 43 ve of sio of I FlvXNIA 42 Xo. 3. 167 the amount imported, and minus the amount used for seed-corn, distilleries and export. The consumption per head has been obtained by dividing this quantity by the number of inhabitants. The result is, as usual, given in kilo- grannnes, which we al^o naturally adopt as the unit. The result is as shown below; Harvest of igo2 sJioioi in kilogrammes per inhabitant. Province Number of inhabitants WTieat Rye ' Oats Barley ' Potatoes Hay Olonets 43 000 0.015 129.4 131.5 14.9 88 7 841.2 Petrosavodsk 90,000 0.006 85.9 ' 73.6 12.8 64 5 841.1 Povenets .... 29,000 0.014 74.4 278 23.0 52 9 800.1 Whole area . . 162,000 0.009 95.4 80 2 15.2 689 833 8 Consumption in Finland per inhabitant in the years i8g6 — igio, expressed in kilogrammes. ,^ Number of ^x., , ^^ , . , t) , Potatoes and tt 1 ^^^^ inhabitants ^^^^^^^^ ^>'^ Oats Barley other roots | ^^^ . 1896-1905 2,710,496 37.:; 200.6 87.8 36.9 152.2 | about 1906-1910 2 997,740 51.2 183.7 97.7 34 o 179.9 ( 700 These tables show that ii the harvest of the East Carelian provinces be compared with the natural rate of consumtion, it does not suffice to cover the needs of the country itself. \\'e are now .specialh' referring to the conipari- sion between the harvest and the consumption of rye and wheat. If the amount requisite for seed corn be subtracted, there remains from the harvest of the Carelian provinces only about 80 kilogrammes per inhabitant, while in Fin- land the consumption of these grains is between 230 and 240 kilogrammes per head annuall}'. The similarity of climate, country and race between Finland and East Carelia obliges one to picture the consumption of corn per indi- vidual in the two countries as somewhat the same, or at least as tending to- wards similarity. It may certainly be argued that in Finland a fairly large quantity of rye is used as strong food for horses and cows, but the number of cows, and especially of horses j^er inhabitant is considerably larger in the three East Carelian provinces than it is in Finland — as will be shown pre- sently, and as is also comprehensible, as almost the whole population there is engaged in agriculture and goods must for the most part be convej'ed by 168 Til. Iliiiiu'ii. A.yriculturt.- and Catlk- Kruriiin. horse. Moreover, the hay harvest is in proportion to the number of beasts- smaller rather than larger in Finland, so that thi^: argument does not improve the deficiency of grtiin in l-.ast Carelia as compared with Finland. As shown in our chapter on Fast Carelian trade, grain is also the chief article of import for the whole territory. Nev':rtheless, in certain districts, as on the penin- sulas which jut out into Lake Onega and some other limited regions in the south, and even in certain villages and homesteads in the province of Povenets, the liar\est suffices for home needs, and sometimes for sale as well. There is even a regular export of oats to Petersburg from the province of Olonets, where the oats crop Ts strikingly large. On the other hand, rye and wheat are imported even here^ the latter being partly used for making the small ring- shajjed water bi.scuits which form a widespread home industr>', and are also well-known in country places in Finland. The rye imported into these three provinces forms two- thirds of their total imports. The grain is imported in the sunnner along the water-courses from Rybinsk, Vologda and Saratoff. Unfortunately, the figures are not com- l^lete enough to afford certain information as to the quantity imported into the territory in question, and still less as to the quantities imported into each province. We may perhaps suppose that outof the 44 Yg'^ii^^i^^ii kilogrammes of r^'e and wheat landed on the piers in the Svir according to the figures for 1900 (see the chapter on Trade and Industry*), some twenty million kilo- grannnes came to the three provinces here in question. This is fairly probable, seeing that more grain is produced in the regions south of the vSvir than in those to the north of that river. If we add to this the quantities imported \-ia Petrosavodsk and Povenets, we should reach a total import of more than 30 million kilogrammes, or about 190 kilogranmies per head. It may be, however, that this figure is too high, as the home crop produces for consumption about 80 kilogranmies per head, although it must also be remembered that some portion of this grain is transported further north from Povenets to the province of Kem. On the other hand, some grain is imported from Finland into the north-western regions of Povenets (Repola and Porajarvi) in exchange for fish and birds. Cattle rearing is, like agriculture, at a \er\' low level of development. Table III. shows the number of domestic animals. By adding up the figures for the separate pro\ inces, we obtain the following three tables, which show the number of domestic animals in tlie provinces, the number per homestead and the number per individual.^ The last table gives also the figures for Finland, for the sake of comparision. It ma> further be mentioned that foals, lambs and young pigs are not included in any of these tables. Fig. 43. Girl Driving a Harrow of Brushwood, Village of J3'rkanmaki. Province of Povenets. Photo P. Eskola. Fig. 44. Burn-beaten Field, with Crop of Oats. Village'o'f Kolat- selka. Tulemajarvi, Province of Olonets. Photo P. Eskola. Fig. 45. Cows of East Carelian Breed, Province of Olonets. Photo ./. Hagntan. Fig. 46. Agricultural Expert on an Official Journey, Village of Kumsujarvi,! Mantyselka, Province of Povenets. Photo A. Hagman. Fl'XXIA 42 No. 3. 1(H> TABLlv III. Niimher of Domestic Animah Kept by the Rural Population of the Provinces of Olonets, Petrosavodsk and Povenets in the year igo2. 170 1 h. Hoiiicit. A.iiriculturi' and Cattle Reariiitj. Number of Domestic Animals in the year igo2. rrovnioe Number of home- steads Horses H(jriK(i Ca UK vSheep Pigs 1 Milch cows Bulls and young cattU- Total Olouets 7.800 9,113 15W3 17,399 33,302 19,900 4048 ; Petrosavodsk 12,304 15,307 26,799 26,500 53,299 34,697 842 Povenets 4,417 4971 8,627 8,179 16,806 13,338 23 Wliole area . . 24 521 29 391 51,329 52,078 103,407 67,935 4,913 Number of Domestic Animals per Homestead. Province Number of home- steads Horses Horned Cattle Sheep Pigs Milch cows Bulls and young cattle Total Olonets 7.800 1.168 2.039 2.231 4 270 2.551 51'." Petrosavodsk 12,304 i 1.244 2.178 2.154 4.332 2.820 0.069 \ Povenets .... 4,417 1.125 1.953 1.852 3.805 3 020 0.(X»5 Whole area . . 24.521 1.199 2.093 2.124 4.217 2.771 0.200 N limber of Domestic Animals per i,ooo Inhabitants in East Carelia in igo2 and in Finland in igoo and jgio. 1 Horned cattle ' Area 1 Number o Inhabitant Horses 1 3 Bulls and young catttle Total a, Pigs Province of Olonets 43 000 212 370 405 775 463 94.1 j » » Petrosav. 90 000 170 298 294 592 386 94 \ » » Povenets 29.000 171 297 286 580 460 0.8 1 Whole area 162,000 181 317 321 1 638 419 30.3 Finland in 1900 2,783,665 102 395 131 526 363 76.0 » » 1910 .... 3,115,197 97 374 141 515 253 50.4 FENXIA 42 Xo. 3. 171 The middle table shows that in all three pro\-inces there are rather more than one horse and about two milch cows per homestead, that the number of sheep varies from 2.5 in Olonets to 3 in Povenets, while pigs are only reared to any great extent in Olonets (0.5 per homestead), to a small extent also in Petrosavod.sk, but in Povenets practically not at all. If, again, we compare the member cf domestic animals per inhabitant, as shown in thelasttable, we find that in the East Carelian provinces there are 181 horses per 1 ,000 inhabitants (2 1 2 in Olonets), while the corresponding number for Fin- land is about 100. The total numbers of horned cattle (including young beasts) rises from 580 per 1,000 inhabitants in Povenets to 775 in Olonets, while in Finland it is about 520. The number of ->milking cows» in the East Carelian provinces is. however, considerably less than that of >>cows over three years* in Finland, given in the same column. The number of dry cows in Carelia is also proportionately very large. As the winter fodder is verA- poor, the cows begin to go dry as early as October, up to which time they are out at pasture. (See GosTA Gkotenfelt; »Vanhauaikainen suomalainenmaitotaloiis», pages 229 — 242. We shall also refer to this valuable work in man}- other paragraphs dealing with dair\- economy.) The number of sheep in Carelia is about 420 jier 1,000 inhabitants but is diminishing in F'inland, being 521 in 1870, 363 in 1900 and 253 in 1910. The number of pigs is fairly large, 94 per 1,000 inhabitants in Olonets, in Petrosavodsk 9.4, but in Povenets only 0.8. In P'inland the number of full-grow-n pigs (over eight months) in September 1910 was given as 50 per 1,000 inhabitants. The figures for 1900 appl}- to the end of the year, after the pig-killing, and undoubtedly include young animals. Finally we compare the hay crop with the number of animals, and, as usual here in I'inland, we reckon one horse as equivalent to two full grown head of cattle, one head of cattle equal to two foals, heifers or calves, or eight sheep and three pi,gs. F^'oals are now included, as is customary, and we assume that in the Carelian provinces they number one tenth of the number of full- grown horses, since the proportion here in Finland is one-seventh, and full- grown horses are imported into Carelia. We thus obtain the following figures; The Hay Crop in igo2, reduced to kilogrammes per head of cattle. Area Ha)' Crop Number of cattle (calculated as above) Amount of hay per head of cattle Province of Olonets 36. 1 72,265 47.8CK I » » Petrosavodsk 75.694,699 81,371 » » Povenets 23.201,713 24,929 Whole area 135,068,677 154 253 Finland. 1910 1.936,878,*:>00 2,185,757 Average 1908— 1912 2021,444,500 2 160000 755.32 930.24 928.37 875.63 886.14 935.85 172 J h. Honii'u. Auritulturi' uiul Catlli- Rt-iiriu}^. Unless the hay crop of the ICast Curehan territory is estimated rather too high, we find that it comes to al)out the same equivalent amount jier head of cattle as in Finland. In both countries this quantity is far below the re(|uirements and strong foods have to be used. This has also its advantages, but easily leads to the maintenance of too large a stock of beasts, still further diminishing the supply of grain for human food, which is already all too small. As, moreo\'er, the situation of Hast Carelia between I^ake Onega and Kandalaks is somewhat more northerly than that of the portion of Finland suited to agriculture, between the Gulf of Finland and, let us say, Tornea, the period of winter feeding is rather longer in Jvast Carelia than it is here. I'Vom what we have been able to learn of the care of bea.sts while they are in stable and byre in F^ast Carelia, their food during the winter is in general all too scant}', and they have to be content with what there is. Under these conditions, the produce is naturally small, and theie can generally be no question of a surplus of milk for sale or export. There is often great shortage of milk and butter in the household, although the Carelians are fond of feasting on butter and pastry and other fat dainties when such are obtainable, between their numerous fasts. It may be added that the cattle are often decimated by severe epidemics, and also that the bear likewise exacts his annual tribute, especially in the province of Povenets. So far we have only spoken of the ha}^ crop and the scanty fodder afforded to the cattle. The dair}^ economy and butter making are also at a primitive level (cp. Grotenfelt, loc. cit.), .similar to that in the more remote districts of Finland before dairy farming made its entrance here and all attention was concentrated on cattle breeding and butter production. We will only add with regard to Hast Carelia, that, with the spread of enlightenment and the improvement of communications and the con- ditions of land ownership, there may be a very .sjjlendid future in store for both agriculture and cattle breeding, when once the magni- ficent natural meadows have been brought under tillage and bog cultiva- tion has been set on foot. Gardening has made some way in the southernmost i)art of the territory and on the fertile peninsulas in Lake Onega, as well as to the west of that lake. It could i)robal)ly be developed to a fairly high i)oint. I'l-XNIA 42 No. 3. 173 The forest lauds belonginii to the \illage coiuiimnities are fairly extensive, and their area is shown in the following table; P r o V i n c e Hectares I^^^t-tP P^^ Hectares per ^'^"^8% homestead comniiniitA- Olcmets 274,966 2,132 35.25 Petrosavodsk 464,736 3,575 37.77 Povenets 329,679 1 ,821 74,64 i Whole area 1,069,381 2 487 43.61 I Tlie rights of utilising the forests are, however, strictly limited, both for conununities and for separate homesteads, through various state regulations. Homesteads may take a certain number of trunks annually, as a rule only six, for indispensable requirements, as well as fuel, which latter may in^cer- tain cases also be taken from the state forests. After forest fires also, the peasants have often been allowed to use timbei that has been injured, even in the state forests, a circumstance which has probably not diminished the frequency of forest fires or increased the zeal displa>-ed in extinguishing them. If a community wishes to sell any of its timber, the state acts as in- termediary, and receives the payment, under the obligation of using the monej' for necessary improvements to the village conuiiunit>-, such as build- ings, roads, etc. Roads are, however, not abundant even in these southerly provinces, as appears from the following table, which shows that nearly half the villages in Olonets, and more than half the villages in Petrosavodsk and Povenets were in 1905 still without any roads practicable for wheeled traffic. XitDilwr of vi/ldges situated on public Jiigli roads, on village roads or on no road at all. -p Number of on public on village without i-rovnice villages high roads roads road Olonets 534 38 Petrosavodsk 636 23 Povenets 402 26 206 229 243 ■ 371 123 ; 253 Whole area . 1,572 87 572 853 174 Th. Hotuen, Agriculture and Cattle Rearing. The distance from the roadless villages to the nearest practicable road was in bad cases several tens of versts, in Olonets between 30 and 40 versts, and in Petrosavodsk between 40 and 50, while in Povenets there were fourteen villages situated more than 50 \ersts from the nearest road. I'or this reason travellers often go on horseback, while goods are con\eyed by sledge e\en in the summer. (See figs. 46,47 and 48). It is easy to understand that the lack of roads ])uts great difficulties in the way of agricultural progress. A few words may be added about the agriciiltur il population itsJf. The Carelians inhabited of old a territory which stretched far to the east and south of all the ]Mesent Carelian country. During the time of Novgorod's greatness, howe\'er, the Russians penetrated the Carelian territory, and this continued during the time o^ the Muscovite monarchs. These latter favorised inuuigrant »White Russians* and gave them large tracts of land for their own, which land, however, is now held in the same way as that of other peasants. vSome of tl^ni penetrated as far as the Petrosavodsk region, wliere thirt}--seven vil- lages are inhabited by their descendants, who are still called »White Russians-). The ironworks established by Peter the Great brought other Russians — these from the black soil country — to the same districts, and some of these were also agriculturalists. The statistics therefore divide the cultivators in the present village communities into four categories; »former state peasants>>, which include all the peasants in the provinces of Olonets and Povenets, except for one \illage, »fornier estate owners' peasants* (six villages in the province of Petrosavodsk), »former works' peasants* (two villages in Petrosa- vodsk), and »white peasants* (thirty-se\'en villages in Petrosavodsk and one in Povenets). The so-called *state peasants) were of old comparatively free, and even now still own more land than the estate-owners' or works' peasants. We cannot here go into these questions in detail, but it seems well to give some facts with regard to the .social position of the inhabi- tants at different times. (See for example AxKi, Liijestkand, »Kultur- kanipen i Bjarmaland*, 1891, and E. Ahti.\'s historical presentation in *Karjalan kirja*, 1910). Up to the time of Peter the Great the peasants enjoj-ed complete perso- nal liberty. The>- had to pay tribute to the crown and the church, but they owned their land, which descended from father to son, and could freely buy and sell it. In 1701 and the following years, Peter establi.shed copper and irorr smelting works and cannon and other factories on the site where the town of Petrosavodsk grew up at the same time, at Kentjarvi and in the province of Povenets. Hands were needed for all these works, and the nati\e male popu- FKXXIA 42 No. 3. 173- lation was comniauded either to enter the actual works, or to hew wood, burn charcoal, dig ore and transport it to the smelting works. By the end of Peter's reign this staff of native workmen numbered between fifteen and six- teen thousand, and formed practically the whole of the adult male pojnila- tion, which had at that time been severely decimated by the wars. Thus the population came into a kind of practical thralldom. The wage was only four kopeks per day in winter and five in summer, six to ten kopeks for a day's work with a horse, and this was natural!}^ not enough to support the famih-. The result was very great discontent, which later broke out in serious distur- bances. This compulsory labour continued after the time of Peter, and was used, for example, in quarrying the marble from Tiudie for building the church of St. Isaac in Petersburg. Shortly before 1 770 the number of workmen reached about 19,000. The disturbances got more and more violent, and in 1769, when the factory work was forced on even at the busiest summer season, developed into a great revolt, which, however, was finally quelled in 1771,. terribly severe punishments being then inflicted. After this, greater calm pre- vailed and the public works were somewhat diminished. By the land reforms carried out under the empresses Elisabeth and Cathe- rine (decrees of 1766, 1768, 1781 and 1785), all the peasants' land was declared to belong to the state and appropriated thereby, while certain areas round the villages were assigned for the use of the peasants, each male individual being granted for cultivation an equal area of the common land of the village com- nmnity. In the provinces of Petrosa\-odsk and Povenets, however, this reform was not completely carried out until after the middle of the last century, when the institution of the mir, as described above, was there finally organised. It is very desirable that a detailed investigation should be made into the for- mer soci-al and economic conditions of East Carelia. There is not nmch to be said about agricvilture in Kem Carelia, in view of the exceedingly small area of land owned by the peasants and the primi- tive nature of the cultivation. The statistics with regard to agriculture are also somewhat scanty and uncertain. Though the zemstvo of the government of Archangel has collected admirable data and descriptions of the eastern parts of the government, which are situated nearer to its capital, it has rather scant}^ information about the province of Kem, which lies west of the White Sea and has a population which is foreign to the Russians. A few words may here be devoted to the progress of social conditions in 17t) J li- Hovieu. Ajirieulturc and Cattle Kearing. the i)r()\iiice of Keiii, as a siqjpleiuent to what has 1>een said above as to the 1 corresponding conditions in the three southern pro\inces. In the course of the continual plundering expeditions or so-called »rob- ber \vars» of the fourteenth, fifteenth, sixteenth, and the beginning of the se\'enteenth centuries, wliich were waged betw een vSweden and Russia, — i. e. between the I'inns east and west of the political frontier, — the country each side of this frontier, lying between the Gulf of Bothnia and the White Sea. was as a rule severely harried. After the Peace of Stolbova (1617) these regions were left to some extent in peace, and flikewire during the following war between Sweden and Russia. Keni Carelia was also to some extent spared during the oGreat \\'ar», and the later wars of the eighteenth century, except for the severe plundering h\ the Russian soldiers (piartered there during the war of 1788 — 90. On the other hand, from the middle of the seventeenth century this country was severely shaken by reli- gious quarrels and the jiersecution of the Old Believers, dissensions which continued for a centur>- and more, e\'en down to our own da\s. When the l)atriarch Nikon carried out his »reforniation» or revision of the church books about 1650, the powerful monastery of Solovets joined his opponents, the Old Believers (raskolniki). After several fruitless expeditions and sieges, the monastery was taken by the government troops in 1676. The monks who es- caped death or imprisonment, however, spread the opposition to the regions south and west of the White Sea, and it is marvellous to read how steadfastly and heroically these Carelians in masses suffered death in the flames, and in this »baptism of fire> gave their lives for their faith. These Old Believers are still in our own days unshakeabh- de\oted to their religious confession. These deeds of martyrdom reveal a seriousness and strength of character which is somewhat unexpected when the light and pla}ful temperament of the Carelians is so often described. One result of the Solovets nionaster\- 's revolt against the new, orthodox doctrine, was that the wide lands which had been bequeathed to it on the mainland to the west, where the peasants were regarded as serfs oi the monas- tery, were confiscated by the state. The lands were, however, restored after the taking of the monastery, when the new monks acknowledged the estab- , lished, new orthodox doctrine. After changing fortunes during the time of , Peter 1., and a restoration to the monastery in 1711, the.se domains with ' their 5180 peasants were finally appropriated by the state in 1764, and, to- gether with the rest of the territory between the \^'hite Sea and the political frontier, were incori)orated with the i)rovince of Onega. In the year 1785 Kem was granted umnicipal rights and in 1787 it was made the capital of a Fig. 47. Bridge in Keni Carelia. Guests returning f'fpia a^ eCafC^., Pho'to "■/. A* Inha. Fig. 47. Bridge in Kem Carelia. Guests returning f-rv^? aj oaffjj., ■ Pholo'/. *A' /nna. Fig:. 48. Road in Kem Carelia. Photo /. A'. Inha. I'l'-.XNIA 42 No. 3. 177 territory called the "ProN-iiice of Kein'>, the boundaries of which, however, were frequently altered. lai that }ear the province was assigned to the government of Olonets, but in 1802 it was transferred to the go\-ernnient of Archangel. The following quotation from IC. Ahtia (loc. cit.) gives, in all its shortness, a very telling picture of the condition of the peasants under all these ])hases, in the territory which now forms the province of Kem. »The peasants here who were subject to monaster}- or the crown, were, e\-en under that sway, in a much better position than those who groaned else where in serfdom under individual nobles. Life was fairly free in these distant wilds. One could burn-beat where one pleased and set snares for birds without any interference. Provided one could sur\-ive the years of bad har\-est, was obedient to the church, paid one's dues and did not evade military service (which lasted nearl\- a lifetime), one might act pretty much as one pleased. Not till the time of Catherine II. did a burdensome policy of restriction begin to be applied even here. In the year 1765 it was enacted that here, as elsewhere, all land which did not belong to nobles, was the property ot the state. A decree of 1784 declared that all the land in a village needed for cultivation Avas the common property of the village community. But in spite of all dec- rees and orders, the previous system of private ownership continued to a considerable extent far into the nineteenth century. In 1829, however, a general division of the land took place; in the middle of the same century all burn-beating was forbidden, and the peasant had to limit his cultivation to the patch of ground which he could manage to till with the help of the few beasts he might chance to possess.* The population suffered enormously and was severely decimated by tjie famine years in the middle of the century-, and especialh* 1867 and 1868. A perceptible improvement was brought about, however, by the decree of March 13th, 1873, which gave the peasants the right to ground for reclamation on crown anlds on a forty years' tenancy. Sirclbiiski gives the cifeu of the province of Kem, including inland waters and the islands in the archipelago, as 45,479 square kilometres. A glance at the map, however, shows that there is here some mistake, which has subse- quenth been adopted in print (cp. the chapter on the forests of East Carelia). Planimetric measurement on our maps gives the result as about 70,200 square kilometres. As only a few of the many islands in the archipelage are marked on the maps, the area cannot be calculated more exacth'. Tht landarea, ey- 12 178 '//'. }io)iien, Agriculture and Caltk- Rearing. eluding water, appears to be about, or i;erhai)s rather more than, 62,500 square kilometres. According to the great census of 1897, the population was then 35,392, and in 1907 it amounted to 42,242. The statistics of population vary consi- derably from year to year, which may be partly due to the fact that at cer- tain seasons of the >-ear thousands of ]>ersons are absent fishing either on the Murman Coast or on the White vSea. Acording to X. Knipovitch (Russian Ivncyclopaedia, 1895), the population on January 1st, 1894, consisted of 36,589 persons, of whom 32,214 were peasants. According to the same source there were in 1890 293 villages, and 5,028 peasant homesteads (6,112 dwelling houses). The conditions of land ownership are the same as in the southern provin- ces, i.e. the institution of the niir is in force here also, but the area belonging to the village comnmnities is very small. According to Knipo\-itch it was in 1890 only 42,579 hectars, or 0.68 ^j^ of the total area of the province. According to Mamadyshski (»Land Conditions in the Go\-ernment of Archan- gel», records of the govermnent of Archangel, 1908), the ownership of land in the province of Kem was in the year 1905 divided as follows: The crown 4,901 ,783 hectares Peasant communities 41,572 o Solovets Monastery 29,150 » The towns 20,535 -> The church 1,241 Factories and companies 33 » Total 4,994,314 hectares The crown lands have not been exactly surveyed, and obviously too small a figure is here given for them. If the other lands are rightly given, and we assume that the total land area is about 6,250,000 hectares, as suggested above,, the crown lands would come to 6,157,469 hectares, the remaining lands all together coming to 92,531 hectares. If the figures are calculated as percentages of the total land area, we obtain the following results; Crown lands 98.5195 "/(, Peasant communities 0.6651 » vSolovets Monastery 0.4664 » The towns 0.3286 » The church O.0199 » I'actories and companies O.0005 » i FKXXIA 42 Xo. 3. 17U The villages are large, at least in the sense that they consist of a large num- ber of homesteads. The average number was 17.2 according to Knipf>\itch in 1890, and 20.4 according to Mamadjshski in 1905. Several villages con- sist of over a hundred homesteads, and look like small towns, or perhaps more like extensive, though by no means modern, communities of small holders. The largest \-illages are well known far around, and form the centres of trade in these remote regions. This is also true of man}' of the large \'illages in the southern provinces, especially Povenets. The largest village in Kem Carelia is Uhtua (or Uhut), situated where the river of the same name runs into lake Ke.ski-Kuittijar\-i (Fig. 49). It contains about 300 homesteads, and is the centre of the trade and the awakening intellectual interests of northern Care- lia. The largest and most important village in the north of the province of Povenets is Repola, on Lake Lieksa in the commune of the same name. This village has from of old had trade relations with Finland. Koikari. on the river Sununjoki in the commune of Lindajarvi,is a rather handsome village in the same province (Fig. 50). According to Knipovitch's figures there would be 8.47 hectares of the pea- sants', i. e. of the village comnivinities' land to each homestead. According to Mamadyshski, the number of homesteads was in 1905 rather larger, namely 5,982, which, taking his estimate of the extent of the com- numities' land, would give an average of 6.96 hectares per homestead. In addition to this, the state has assigned 6,671 hectares of land for reclamation on lease to 1,306 peasants, or an average of 5.ii hectares per peasant. Fig- ures which 1 have seen give the rent as five roubles per dessiatin (— 1.0925 hectares) annually. Most of the tenants appear also to own shares in the land of the village communities. It is a peculiarity of the province of Kem not found in other parts of the government of Archangel (and at that time, 1905, scarcely in any other terri- tories either), that the community land (13,886 hectares) of nineteen villages had been definitively divided among the 1,408 homesteads they contained, each homestead in these villages thus receiving on an average 9.86 hectares. The proportion of cultivated land is everj^where very small. Table IV. gives the statistics of sowing and harvest and the area sown in each commune, and according to these figures the area sownin that immense province was in 1905 only 4,332.9 hectares. If the cviltivation in the towns of Kem and Suma (7.7 hec- tares) be subtracted, there remain 4,325.2 hectares, or an average of 0.72 hectares of sown land per homestead, on Mamadyshski's figure of 5,982 homesteads. As the small rye fields are left fallow every second or third year, the amount of land which is cultivated at all is rather larger, or about 0.9 hectares per 1«() Tit. Hoiiicii. Agricullurt- and Cattle- Rearing. < •-t II [^ Koiitokki . Jyskyjarvi . X'oijarvi ... Siiiku £ P 2 ^ -: < ;r < f»^ C ="2 7^' J:^' ►;■ c - Zr. w: p" 5' ?r 7". ?1 ?^ 7: 53 ^'? r. — to p opnlatic ■u 10 — — Ovi — to — — -— ^--ooco— 00 — *-* n *j c c; — -fc- 'c; X — to '--1 x m X c: c; 'c; 00 -0 en -o 3 -J oi '*. X in 1907 to — C/;-j~^4^O'XC0^cn OCT, oc: ■ocooo — oc to -^ X*-— C^Cn4^tOO.t^tOOitOO)010»OOtOC>0'r!0001 -^ A — — to 01 to to — 05 CO to — en to rea sown X X c 'r:OJ'^*>.C5C04i.oc:5aiootoco*^ ' - — — *^ p *^ p 00 to en p — w pi — c; to 4^ pc p' -- to en to in hectares = — '^j-ooi-i- — 6oJco> -1— X. ~j w qc -r: OCOOOOOOcCtO (— to — P 1«J w! — ojl ojioioto^ CO 'o 00 ~j Ji. — bi CO 1 i ! 1 Harley 0< OC to OJ ' -JCO(00 -] *- — i' ^ tX O) Q CO— ■ ' ' rt- — O" 00 1 1 enci oj^ooc'ooien- to — toc;oco' i Oats rf~ oc 1 : 1 to 1 1 1 ! 1 1 i M 1 1 i ■X. to ' ' 00 ■ 10 ' ■ — Q ^ -J to 00 n Pota- ^ jX to to li ~oc to — — to to — to 00 *>. -a — — 1— n, toes •^ c oi-Jcn'^-Jiowo-J-ioi'rJOitow*' — to*^4^ — 4^-Jt»to^wioo)tox — Oi toyi oc _-=^ i^^tO (-1- c -J 1 10 ! Ju 1 to en ji. en i — a> — 05 CO ojen to CO 01 00 --a ' 1 i Rye '^ * C5 00 CO -J CO cr. — .1^ en to ■;>■ — to — 00 v. Barley to ^1 W -1 1 — '— ^ 01 — 00 00 to — UI *> , , — en — '*» CO 00 to 'O -o 1 t 1 1 01 00 — O5C0 oco'rj'oc X en encoo5 'r!ccooo.^tooitoo4i.occ:*>.en Oats to 1 1 00 ' - 1 1 -J 1 1 i 1 ! 1 1 i 1 M i 1 1 p 1 1 to ■ _ 1 1 00 — • ' '' to '''■''' ' i-i ^ oj CO en — en Pota- < ^ ^- — — — to 00 p p 1 V. "r^ ~j aito*'0"ooen to 00 '*>. -J — cv bv to — — pto toes -^ tooo ci'^enenoo — -ocncr. ooooci^o-^iocoto en ^ Oi ooenena~j*^4i.c:c;toentoen-J4i.-Jiooieno.t^ai en CO c io 'o ^] to to — J^ 00 *« *" — 00 to -J C-. *- oc -J 00 to to c> ^ ] ^av. — — O-J^^jen-ooocc 4:.OtO — toai'OCDOJC--J PS? in kilo- J^ to en *^ c: -J -c X to -jc J^ 00 OJ cr, 00 -] 3 p 4:^ -J 00 p to CO X ~.t^ — en 00 lo ~ OJ ir. 00 bi "~ "•t' '— '— V 00 '-J 00 X 00 bo en cr bo'-j gr£ iinmes ?i; 2 •'^ ^ ^ 2 it S ^ ^— ^' 0-' ~ to Ci to O) ^^ — to C -J CO j^ to:::30 0oc:coocto ._0.0) 1 — 1 CO , — — — to , , — to 00 to 00 to , 1 Rye OJ to 1 CO 1 00 1 ID :>J to to 1 1 --jeni^^^^entopl 1 1 1 a: i; ^ (O ^ '« b — isc/i — 060 — *■ in H-l 5-- J- — OC !K — ^ CC tOh:w.u4.i-^oi HH .-- — *^ P .(>■ to,— ^,c-> — j^toen X C-. en to X en oi , , 1 1 TT liar ley -1 N — 1 to — _— 1 cop — en4^enoctO'X:p — .■-4*'t>J| 1 1 1 "^ tc X bo^b iouiioui^ 4. x^03^0iQDO)0 ji 01 w *. ^^ 00 E en ^ — 00 tr' p — f>. p c. — to en 'O — ■-C: 'O ■*»• 4^ 00 — ^ -~J X CO en to p ^ toes — » !c bi Jo — ic — i-: ■-• to — is w - oc rcw.fc.0C^tJ 00 00 p 'O 5> en to p 4i. to — to t-. to c to 00 p 00 ^0 en 'O C5 en 4^ 00 r-^ b (T. — OC u in i;i cc b — op in •^/i -o ic c/i -o -"O yi c: (S VI b III ic M a — ic -ji > oats, 36,905 » potatoes, 19,094,494 kilogrammes hay. If the population of the province be estimated at 40,000 persons, this gives the following number of kilogrammes per person; — rye 14.43, barley 44.61, oats 1.21, potatoes 64. 5S, hay 477.36. In this northern land the rye and still more the oat harvest is very small, but the barley crop on the other hand is comparatively large, considerably more than the crops of rye and oats together, and nearh' three times as much per individual as the average of the three southern provinces. Table IV. shows, however, that rye still grows quite well in Kiestinki and Oulanka, that is, right up to the arctic circle. Oats grow very well inTungut, in 64" 20°' north latitude (somewhat north of Kajana in Finland), apparently better than rye or barley. The hay and potato crops are also comparatively abundant, the latter being almost as much per inhabitant as in the three southern provin- ces, less than in Olonets but as much as in Petrosavodsk and more than in Pov- enets. Table IX. and the graphic representation on Map II. show also that the harv-est, especially that of barley and potatoes, is strikingly good in certain districts of the extreme north of the province, such as Kiestinki and Oulanka, \\hether reckoned absolutely or per inhabitant. So too, in the small northerly communes of \'itsataipale and Pistojiirvi the barley crop (and in Pistojarvi also the potato crop) are remarkably large per individual. (In calculating the harvest per individual, the population of the different communes was taken according to the census of 1907 without any correction). This comi)aratively plentiful harvest in the northernmost part of Carelia is important evidence that agriculture can well be carried on far north in Hast Carelia, even right up to the arctic circle, at least at some distance from the coast. If the present primitive level of East Carelian agriculture be taken into consideration, it 182 Til. Ho)iieii, AgricniltiUf and Cattk- Rearing. seems that, as far as climate is concerned, cultix'ation will be possible further north than in Finland, but it is at jjresent not possible to pronounce a defi- nite opinion on this point. I'inally, with regard to the grain har\'est, the above particulars agree pretty well with the statement of Knipo\-itch and others that the native harvest suffices for the agricultural poi)ulati()n itself for four months in the year, but that then nothing can be given to the horses and cows. The agricultural TABI.E V. Kitmher of Domestic Animals in the Province of Kem in 1904. Conununc Cattle o u W Town of Kem , » » Suma . . . . Solovets ^Monastery Rityal Ciiiiiiiiitiu's : Kandalaks Kouta Kieretti Oulanka Kiestinki , A'itsataipale Pistojarvi \'uokkiniemi ITitua Paanajarvi Ponkauia I'smana Kontokki , Jy.skyjarvi Tinigut \'oijarvi Suiki Suikujarvi Sort^kka : . . hapina Koleshnia Xjuhtslia , Whole area 3 13 14 2 6 30 10 6 18 21 7 14 10 15 20" 11 2 13 11 8 5 8 167 196 115 48 79 160 425 870 260 270 540 691 246 238 8 230 370 220 400 158 543 390 292 160 301 19 18 15 35 131 55 50 42 103 52 82 20 200 70 18 40 64 110 28 55 43 73 , 91 ! 190 j I 20 58 107 253 400 124 140 200 189 140 70 35 185 I 160 260 153 j 78 ! 318 ! 308 184 j 184 I 386 I 3 176 3 386 33 ! — 400 389 610 1,251 2,273 260 580 2,200 1,011 441 519 220 325 850 520 400 267 610 700 362 320 1,060 10 13 7 3 10 8 12 8 5 15 18 10 25 15 22 25 27 16 39 78 4 675 351 680 1,984 3,567 400 3,020 18 174 20 32 248 7,377 1,250 4.306 317 , 16,130 11,(X)3 FIvXNIA 42 Xo. 3. 183 ]>opulation in 1904 was about 35,000 persons, and the total crop of r>e and barley divided among them gives 67.5 kilogrammes per head. The remaining three quarters of the year's supply for the whole population is imported from Archangel by a special authority for the purpose, and a small quantity also through Povenets. The agricultural population consists mainly of Carelians, as was also shown by Knipovitch, while immigrant Russians form the greater ])art of the remainder; — merchants, priests, ofiicials, the town ])opulation and the fishers on the coast. Table \'. affords information with regard to the domestic animals. Their numbers were in the year 1904; — 4,306 horses, 7,377 cows, 8,881 horned cattle, 16,130 sheep, 1 1,003 reindeer. A small proportion of these were within the areas of the towns of Kem and Sunia and the Solovets monaster\-. As the number of peasant homesteads is about 6,000, this table does not show as much as one horse per homestead. A large number of homestead.s*have to manage without horses, a fact which is also confirmed by other information. This is fairly comprehensible, when the area of land, and of cultivated ground, belonging to the homesteads is less than that which is usually held by the cottars here in Finland. The number of cows conies to about 1 Y2Pcr home- stead. Sheep are more tnimerous, but most noticeable is the large number of reindeer,, an a\-erage of more than two per homestead. In the winter these can to some extent be used as substitutes for horses, they can be advantage- ously slaughtered, and they also afford some milk. If we calculate the num- ber of domestic animals per inhabitant, for the sake of comparision with the southern provinces, with Kola Lapmark and with Finland, and ifwe estimate the number of inliabitants in Kola Lapmark as 12,000 (in the year 1908), we obtain the following results; X umber of Domestic Animals per i,ooo Inhabitants. Province of Kem, 1904 Three .southern provinces, 1902 Kola Lapmark, 1908 Finland, 1900 » 1910 Full grown Horned horses cattle 108 P?l 11 102 97 Sheep I Reindeer 222 638 163 526 515 402 419 386 363 253 285 5,636 44 40 184 • Til. Hoineii. Agriculture and Cattk- Reariug. The- imiiil)er of liorses per inhabitant is slij^litly greater than in l-'inhmd, but much less than in Olonets Carelia, the cattle are less than half as many as in iMnland, about a third as many as in Olonets Carelia, but more than in Kola lyapmark, while the .sheep are about as numerous as in Olonets Carelia and in Kola La])niark, ])ut considerably' more tlian in I-'inland at the same time. As the agricultural population cannot gain a sufficient li\-elihood from the cultivation of the scanty lands as.signed to it - which is partly due to the primitive methods ot tillage — it has to seek to .supplement its income from other sources. These are found in forest work — timber-cutting and floating/and especially in fishing, while the chase also contributes to the li^•eli- hood of many. The Carelian bent for transport and trade also asserts itself, peddling being a very usual ocupation which is ])ursued in Finland also. Many have made small fortunes thereby. A. W. IvKV.\sTi (.>Muistelmia matkalta \'enajan Kariala.ssa kesiillii 1879»), who travelled in Kem Carelia in 1879 and the following year, and noticed the extraordinary poverty of that country, even considered that peddling in Finland was the chief source of livelihood for the population of Kem Carelia. But since then the meagre agriculture has .somewhat improved, and the sea- fishing in particular has made progress, while Carelian peddling in Finland has diminished, so that in any case the above observation is now no longer true. As recently as 1907 however, I. K. Lxha, who had travelled in that country (see his interesting »Kalevalan Laulumailta»), and B. Ahti.\ in 1910 (see »Karjalan Kirja», 1910) both considered that this peddling in Finland was a \er}' important source of income for the regions mentioned, and that at the beginning of the century it might have been the most important source. Gradually hovv'ever it had become less lucrative and lost its importance, owing to the great progress of rural trade in Finland. Ahtia gi\-es the number of Carelian pedlars travelhng in Finland as 1,048 in 1872, and 1,139 in 1893. Flrva.st's simple and modest descriptions of the country and people of the north of Fast Carelia are also instructive. They are still in most respects fully true. I therefore venture to quote from his description of the village of Uusikyla on the river Kieretti, which is situated about 40 kilometres (as the crow flies) south-west of the village of Kieretti. This, like all his descriptions of his trav- els, ilhuninates the life and people, the primitive culture and the world of ideas of these desolate regions. »l'usikyla consists of ten homesteads, which stand in a row but are not quite close to one another — or rather of ten small cottages, (niokkia), for that is what thev reallv are. Below the cottages, down to the shores of the Fig. 49. Uhutjoki River. Parts of the Village of Uhtua in the background. Photo /. A'. Inha. Fig. 50. Village of Koikari on the Sununjoki. The church and the Trees in the burial ground are visible in the background. Lindajarvi, Province of Povenets. Photo P. Eskola. Fig. 51. Old Homestead. One older part and two newer parts built at different timas for the sons of the house. Village of Plakunvaara. Province of Povenets. Photo P. Eskola. Fig. 52. Natural Meadow, and a Barn which is used is h dwellinjf for the haymakers during the long hay harvest on distant, out- lying lands. Two dinner tables in front of the by/n.; Village }cjit; \' Selkie, Paadene, Province of Povenets. Photo P. Eskola. in:.\.\l.\ 42 No. 3. 185 Jake, was meadow, and above them perhaps a square pole of ])l()u^hhmd. The cows were the most vahtable property of the village, and at the beginning of the summer these had numbered fifteen, but the bears had recently killed one and severely mauled another, so that now there were really only thir- teen. Of horses, of which Kieretti possessed more than twenty, there had been four in Uusikyla during the winter, but the bears had also killed one of these, so that there were now only three horses in the village. Thirteen cows, three horses, ten old cottages and a little fishing tackle — what ^■alue does the reader .set on the village of Uusik3da? The inhabitants of the village did not complain of po\erty, severe though their poverty apparently was, and begging was as unknown here as elsewhere in Carelia. The only ground of complaint was the bears and their ravages, and this complaint was bitter enough, and also, as shown above, well founded. Inmiediately we left Kieretti, the guides had asked whether we had or knew of any >>means of driving off bears» (karhun pelottiijiia). It would have been interesting to know what they meant by this, but unfortunately my com- panion could not keep silence, but answered by asking what other means there could be than good guns, axes and pikes. It is probable that the guides had in mind some kind of magic, as appears from the fact that I finall}- got them to tell nie that bears had also caused much damage at Kieretti, until there came a shepherd from the interior of the country who by incantations and other means had completely driven them off. No doubt my companion's advice was fairly good, but whether it could be followed is another question. There was probably no gun in the whole village except the old flintlock w^e had with us on the journey, which might perhaps have hurt us more than it helped if we had been attacked by the bears. » in spite of the poverty which at present prevails, and the unspeakably primitive level of the population in regard both to agriculture and to much besides, there is no reason to mistrust the future of agriculture in these regions. The study of the conditions of East Carelia. its land, climate, people and tillage, leads to the conclusion that there are definite possibilities before agriculture even in the north of the country. If only the conditions of land ownership were so arranged as to give the peasants as much land of their own as an agriculturalist absolutely must have if he is to make his way, there would be a possiblity of improvement. There is, however, one great difficulty in the way; namely the fact that the Carelians live in very large and closely populated villages which are many miles distant from each other. It is easily comprehensible that once upon a time these dwellers in the wilds preferred to concentrate themselves in large villages, as they did not i ■\H(] Th. Howhi, Ayrirnltiirc- and Cattk* Reurin- chose their dwelling places. It was easy to hunt and fish, and even to ] burn-beat at a somewhat greater distance from home, not to speak of the \ trading journeys in foreign lands, but real agriculture, with manures and scientific use of the soil, cannot be carried on when the land is at an immense distance from the dwelling house. Yet if the tens and even hundreds of home- steads in a single village are all to be given cultivable land, even if only in small lots of ten to twenty hectares, the greater number of these lots must be selected at a very considerable distance from the \illage. For the good, cultivable, solid land does not form large continuous stretches. If it did, the matter could be arranged with less difficulty. It generally consists of small plots, divided by ridges, moors and i)eat bogs, and nuist therefore often 3 be sought at very great distances from the village. The problem would be- i come nuich easier if the population learned bog-cultivation — as it will have to do sooner or later — but in any case, if efficient agriculture is to come about, there will have to be a well devised division of the land, with a suitable spread- ing out of the homesteads. Only then can there be any satisfactory- result. It may be added that, while the population of Kem province has increased from 10,885 to 42,242 between 1813 and 1912, the viUages have grown in size, i. e. in their number of homesteads and inhabitants, rather than in num- ber. From the time when Loxnrot wandered in these districts between 1830 and 1840, till 1879, when Ervast visited the same regions and up to the pre- sent day, the number of homesteads in the \-illages has increased two and even threefold. When the population of a village grew by natural increase, the young people have remained in tlie \'illage, lengthened the roof and walls of their father's dwelling and set up their own household there (see. Fig. 51), or finally built a cottage of their own, thus adding a homestead to the village. But thereby the land, scanty before, became still more inadequate for the culti- vators. The young people would not go out into the wilds, even if land could , be obtained there. But this must not go on. THE YOUNG PEOPLb: IVIUST EF:A\T': THE old home, and the main MLLAGE; that is the very thing the>- must do. \^'hile this gfeat country with good cultivable land foi hundreds of thousands of people, and po.ssibly more, is still excessively thinly populated, with 0.6 persons to the square kilometre, there is serious over- population in the \-ilhiges, nearly 100 persons on one .square kilometre of the land that belongs to the connnunities. This to some extent explains why the male population seeks subsidiary income from peddling, sea-fishing etc. It is true that in most cases there is still a good deal of (xiltivable land belonging I'lvNXIA 42 No. 3. 1«7 to the coiuiuunities which has not been taken np, not to speak of the fact that the primitive methods of culti\ation could be improved, but in the larger villages many of these plots are at a \'ery great distance from the »village>> itself, that is from the place where the homesteads are built, and it is neces- sary to remove from the actual village even to get these plots cultivated, in so far as that can be done with advantage. This is particularly the case inOlonets Carelia. In spite of its more south- erh' position, between the sixty-first and sixty-fourth north latitudes, and the fact that the soil is considerably more- fertile than in the province of Keni which lies between the sixty-fourth and sixt^'-seventh latitudes, and in spite of the fact that in the southern provinces the communities own many times more land, 80 hectares per homestead (144 in Povenets) against sever in Kem, vet the amount of cultivated land averages onh- 2.i hectares per homestead, and about one hectare in the north-west districts of Olonets and in Povenets, that is, scarcely more than in the pro\-ince of Kem. If ever one can say that figures speak, it is true here, for they show that although the villages of Olon- ets Carelia own much land, and usually a good deal of cultivable soil, the cul- tivated area is still very small. Thus in the three provinces of C)lonets Carelia the cultivated ground ave- rages only 2.65 o/p of all the land owned by the villages, in Povenets it is only 1.35 ^/p (in one commune only 0.23 ^/q), against 8.66 "/^ in the province of Kem. (This last figure is obtained by comparing the amount of land tilled bv the peasants with the sum of all the land owned by the communities plus the land leased from the state. If onh- the land owned by the communities is used for the comparison, as in the southern provinces, the percentage comes to 10.40). The reason for this remarkable fact is of course that the numerous homesteads in a village are concentrated round one and the same spot, so that the distance from all to the greater part of the culti\-able soil becomes exceedingly great. At hay-time the inhabitants remove completely to the meadows, which are many tens of kilometres distant, and establish temporary households there (Pig. 52). How can the cultivation of this land be made profitable? I'nfortunateh' there are somewhat similar conditions in many parts of I'inland, especially in the north, but not only there. If the tillage of Ihe P^ast Carelian provinces is to be developed and improved, there must be a division of the land, and an appropriate dispersion of the homesteads. The state ought to do all it can to assist agriculture, and must help here by granting land where necessary. That is, in cases where the village has too little land, which is especially the case in Kem, it nmst assign land for colonisation ■on favourable terms. But this land must on no account be given to the village 188 (). I.di!iii'(>//i, Tlie Forests aiul I'orctsry. coiiuuunity as a wliolc, 1)iit granted to settlers who have a bent and talent for agriculture, and these may also be assisted with timber and other necessaries for their first homes. The population increases rapidh", so that tlie colonisation ought to be able to proceed fairly fast. The colonists may very well settle in small \-illages, there are advantages in their so doing, but the homesteads must be so placed and their lands so divided that each homestead has its own land in its inniiediate \-icinity. Too much land ought not to Ije granted either, this cjuly affords a temptation to too extensive cultivation, while the cultivation ought to be made as intensive as is })ossible in this northern country. When the tillage is successful, more land can be assigned later on. As the women are very cai)able, it ought also to be i^ossible to introduce efficient cattle rearing and dairying, if only practical instruction were given. The state forest work, again, affords the opportunity for extra earnings, as well as affording purchasers and places of sale for agricultural produce. If bog-cultivation is also assisted and makes progress, it ought to be possible for agriculture to make great advances, for the land gradually to be populated, and for l)overty to be replaced by prosperity and culture. Agriculture ought then to be able to compete with forestry and industry, which have also great opportunities of advancement in this country. ^Moreover, these different occupations need each other's support, and afford it mutualh" when progress is sound. Thus we may hope for great and important improvement in agriculture, and a securer, happy future tor the agriculturalists in this hitherto .so little known and little ])roductive land. Thkodok Homkx. 2. The Forests and Forestry. Pro\-inces of Olonets, Petrosavodsk and Povenets in the Government of Olonets. T/w cxtciil (ij the jorcsls, the ru^hts of mciicrs/iip, the kinds of timht'i', and its i^ownil condition. According to the information available, the area of Olonets, Petrosavodsk and Povenets, excluding water is divided among the various groups of owners as follows; — I'l'.XXIA .42 Nc. 3. 180 Ounersliip of tlie Land i)i kjoj. Area Province excluding water I, and owned i)_v The state or public Private 'J'he institu- 7o owners, % peasants. tions, in in hectares in hectares hectares ( )lonets 952,339 499,189 52.-I2 4.722 so 448.428 47.08 jPetro.savod.sk.. 1,546,189 601,625 38.9i 62,356 4.or. 882,208 57 06 I Pove nets 4.088.032 3,447,349 84.33 3,656 0.09 637.027 15.58 Total 6,586.560 4,548,163 69.04 70,734 1 o? 1 ,967.663 29 89 Otit of the land area included in the table which belongs to the state or public institutions, 4,481,419 hectares (487,184 in Olonets, 573,872 in Petrosa- vodsk and 3,420,363 hectares in the province of Povenets) is under the con- trol of offices of state, generally the Department of Forestry. The rest con- sists of the land belonging to the towns (43,580 hectares), the monasteries (17,504), the church (5,629) and other public institutions. Out of the 70,734 hectares entered under the heading of private oiciicrs, 9,064 hectares are calculated to belong to the nobility, 12,039 to merchants, 47,303 to peasants, and 2,328 to private factories. (Cp. the description in the chapter on Agriculture and Cattle Rearing). The last column shows the area belonging to the village comnmnities, or the agricultural peasantry, and amounts to a total of 1,967,663 hectares, also to some extent under state control. The information supplied by the zemstvo of the government for the year 1908 .shows that the greater part of the land belonging to the state (4,081,696 hectars out oi 4,481,419) consists of state forests under the care of the Depart- ment of P'orestr\-. The rest of the state landed property con.sists for the most part of lands administered by the Board of Mining Industry. The said state forests were in the year 1908 di\ided between the provin- ces as follows; ^ _ Amount of lotal area of ,•,• , , ,i, ,, . , Province ,tate fore.sts ^f^'^f;'^^^ Percentage. tor est land». Olonets 464,465 326,595 70.0 Petrosavod.sk 373,932 252,256 67 5 Povenets 3,243,299 l,978,6i;^ 61.0 Total 4,081,696 2,557,464 62J (^) < )l)viously productive and moderately productive forest kind. \90 O. l.diinroth. The Foix-sls and l-'orcstry. An older statement, however, from the Department of Forestry, gives- the area of the state forests as 4,184,282 hectares divided between Olonets, Petrosavodsk and Povenets as follows; Amount of ,. Total area of ^i- ui n . * , Provmce »utilisable Percentage state forests .• 4. i „j tor est lana». Olonets 462,458 31 1,472 67.35 Petrosavodsk 372,324 250,948 67.40 Povenets 3,349,500 1 ,406,269 41 .98 Total 4,184,282 1,966,689 47.05 The zemstvo's report regards the figures first given as more accurate than the last, as being based on more recent calculations, especially with regard to the »utilisable forest land» in Povenets. We have, ho\ve\'^r, gixen also the se- cond set of figures, because these are the ones which agree with those in the following table, showing the names of the different forest demesnes (datcha), surface conditions, kinds of trees, age, density and quantity of timber per hectar. As seen from the next table, the state forests of Olonets are divided into eighteen demesnes of varying sizes. There are five forestrs* districts in the province, namely Vaasheni, Olonets, \'idele, Tulemajar%-i and Kotkatjarvi- Pinesand firs are f airlye qually divided, the fir having a slight preponderance. Deciduous forest forms fifteen per cent of the whole. The age of the forests varies in general between 100 and 220 years, but is in some state forests only 50 — 80 years. The timber is for the most part good and tall, in places reaching the height requisite for masts. The density varies between 0.4 and 0.8, ave- raging 0.7 (1) The amount of timber in the state demesnes varies from 130 to 300 cubic metres per hectar o^ utilisable forest land. The quantity of saw- logs is said to be from 10 to 50 ^j^ of the w^hole amount of timber. In the i)rov'nce of Petrosavodsk there are eight extensive state, forest areas, which form five forestry district--. These are Pyhajar\'i,. Kislikoi, Saamiijarvi, Ostretchino and \'osnesenia. Here the pine has the preponderance, forming 50 % of the whole, while the fir forms 30 % and deciduous trees 20 %. The average density of forest is 0.7. The age of pine and fir forests varies between 80 and 200 years, that of deciduous forest be- tween 30 and 80 years. The timber is in general good and high, and mast (^) In forestry documents, density of forest is denoted by the figures 0.1 — l.n, 0.1 signifying almost treeless forest land, and 1.0 the densest forest. ri-:XNIA 42 Xo. 3. 191' Ai'ea of the State Forests, Kinds of Trees and Quantities of Timber. )'roviiice and Forest Demesne (datcha) Kiud of Tree Age Ci- u u >, 0) a " V a '2t. C " ^ J"" Oloiieis: Tiileniajarvi \ieljaivi .Suurmaki . Videle . . . 'Kroshnojarvi Sadnenikifor skoi Kotkatjarvi . \'erhovskoi . Kontushe . . Tuulos-Sandeb- skoi Illiuski . . . jMakri .... 'ob.sa vSanibatukskoi Kontusche-Lo- janskoi X:o 1 Kontushe-Lo- janskoi X:o 2 \'aasheni X;o 1 » 2 64,676 43,700 30 I 60 10 100-220! ? 17.699 15,186 20 50 30 120—200! ? 26,657 21,413 40 Td 20 120-200 ? 13,110 9,723 60 30 10 120—200 ? 2,185 1,748 20 60 20 100—160 1 ? 23,926 9,942 50 30 20 120- 180 i ? 76,694! 57,793 30 60 10 120-200 ? 13,219 9,614 50 40 10 50—80 ? 4,916j 4,042 30 50 20 120—220 \ ? i 23,8171 — 60 30 10 120— 220 | ? 7,32o| 3,824 60 40 — 80—120 | - 1,202 437 90 10 — 10-60 - 27,968 12.892 70 20 10 70—140 ? 19 556 16,497 30 60 10^120—170 ? 23,380| 17,152 50 30 20 6U— 180 ' ? 21,522 14,093 50 30 20 60,1 ? ' \ i 49,818 39,221 20 70 10 120— 180 j ? 44,793 34 195 15 70 15 80-1201 ? 0.7 175 12 ? 175 12 ? 175 12 0.7 190 ? 0.7 225 15 0.7 225 16 ' 0.7 300 20 0.7 130 10 0.7 175 12 7 175 12 0.6 130 '■ 0.8' 160 — - ' 175 20 0.7 225 ? 0.8 250 30-40 0.8 250 30-40 0.7 250 I 20 0.8 275 ; 50 Total and ave- rage 462,458 311,472 35 5o 15 — Pett'osai'odsk. Lintajarvi . ^luujarvi . |Kulmukskui JKi.shkoi . . Saaniajarvi Pyhajarvi . (Jstretshiiuo X.o 1 . . » 2 . . 0.7i 238 24 82265 5,026 1,311 26,329 82.265 29,716 60,743 84,669 70,029; 80 15 5 ? ' ? ! 0.6 175 3.387 50 30 20 ? ? I 0.7 140 1,202 70 20 10 100— 150 30-80 0.7 175 16 388 50 20 30 100-200 20— 80 0.7 150 31,027 50 30 20 ? ? ' 0.7 250 24 581 60 20 20 80-180 ? 0.7 225 15 20 24 24 48 944 30 50 20 ? 55,390 30 50 20 160 80 0.7 200 0.7 200 Total and av raye . . 372,324 250.9481 50 30 20 — 0.7 197 22 1i'2 (). I.oinnotli. 'llif F(»n.sl.s and l"\>rtslrv Province and Forest Demesne i(latilia) If- c _ f-.= rttlisal'le land. in hectares K ind Tree jf Ai;e "0 « « 1 Deciduous Irees % Pine and fir forest Deciduous forest Densil Cubic ni( per hec Poveneis: Kiiniasjarvi . . 126,293 39,330 80 10 10 100-200 40-60 0.7 225 26 Rcpola N:o i . 410,343 185,725 70 20 10 90-200 ? 0.7 225 20 Repola N:o 2 . 253' 460 76.475 80|20 — 100-200 _ 0.7 200 17 Rukajarvi . . . 312.127 48,070 80 10 10 100-200 30—90 0.6 180 17 Paadene . . . . 514,349 151,530 70 20 10 100-200 30-90 0.5 125 10 Selki 445,412 205,827 70 30 — :■' — 0.7 200 15 Uikujarvi 150-250 (parts) . . . . 338,894 145.303 80 10 10 -300 ? 0..S 125 ? Htela-Uiku- 100—200 jarvi 222,433 94,283 60 '30 10 -250 30-90 0.5 125 15 , vSuinsaari . . . 16,060 5,135 70 20 10 100-200 40-100 0.6 125 ? 1 Ivintajarvi . . 62,273 24,472 70 30 — ~ - 0.7 200 15 Semsjarvi . . . 34,086 16,825 70 20 10 100-300 ? , 0.7 190 10 vSemsjarvi (second lot) . 30,918 19,665 70 20 10 100-250 ? i 0.5 80 10 Semsjarvi- Kisc-hkoi . . . 75.820 45,885 70 20 10 100-200 ? 0.6 175 15 Kisclikoi . . . . 2,731 2,185 60 30 10 100-200 30-80 ? 130 ? Tnngskoi . . . 16,825 8,740 60 20 20 100-200 30-90 0.5 130 ? lainibnjoki . . 31.792 19,665 60j30 10 100-200 30-80 0.5 130 ? Tihvinoborskoi 1 100-200 (sonthern part) 224,509 160,270 60 '30 10 -250 40—100 0.6 100 ? Tihvinoborskoi 100—200 (second lot) . 175,893 119,083 60 30 10 -300 ? 0.6 130 ■ i Voljarvi . . . . 1,530 1,093 70 20 10 ? ? 0.5 80 10 ! Miistanietsa [ outlying fort'st 1,857 983 50 ' 30 20 ^ ? ,0.6 130 10 Orschenijoki 4,152 2,841 70 20 10 ? ? 0.7 130 10 Pigniaschkfji 32S 109 70 20 10 ? ? 0.5 80 10 Pudoschkoi . . 47.415 32.775 60 30 10 'i ' 0.6 130 12 Total and ave- rage 3,349,500 1,406 269 70 20 10 — — 0,7 158 16 trees occur here and there. The quantity of timber varies troiu 140 to 230 cubic metres per hectare. Sawlogs form 20 — 25 ^/^ of the whole quantity of timber. FENXIA 42 No. 3. 193 In the province of Povenets there are t^venty-three state demesnes, varying in size from 328 to 514,349 hectares. There are nine forestry- districts, Repola, Povenets, Uiknjar\-i, Selki, Tihvinoborskoi, Rukajiirvi, Semsiar\-i, Paadene and Snnku. The pine generally preponderates (70 ^/q), while the fir forms 20 °/q and deciduous trees onl}- 10 ^/q of the whole. No deciduous forest at all is reported from some demesnes. The age of the pine and fir forest varies between 90 and 300 years, that of deciduous forest between 30 and 100 years. The density averages between 0.5 and 0.7. The quantity of timber is 80— 225 cubic metres per hectare, of which sawlogs form 10 — 26 °/q. The forestry districts in the go\'ernment ot Olonets have an average ex- tent of 186,541 hectares, chief woodwards' districts of 45,439 and woodwards' districts of 10,012 hectares. The total area of the land controlled by the Board of Mines and other na- tional authorities or belonging to the towns, monasteries and church is 568,467 hectares. It is estimated that.550,000 hectares ot this is forest, about 400,000 hectares of it utilisable. The kinds of timber, its age, and the general charac- ter of the forest is the same as that of the state demesnes in the same regions. Out of the 70,734 hectares belonging to private individuals, it is estimated tha^ 69,368, or 98 "/q, consists of forest land, o^ which 70 "/q, 49,549 hectares is »utilisab]e». A remarkable proportion of the land in private ownership con- sists of large estates where the saJe of timber is the most important matter and agriculture only secondary. This is specially true of the estates belonging to nobles, merchants and factory owners. The following description of the condition and use made of these private forests is given in a publication of the zemstvo of the government of Olonets; — MaTepiiaJLi no C'raTiiCTiiKO- 3K0H0MHiecK0My OnncaHiro OjiOHeitKaro Kpan 1910. »The forests have be» n cut down without any method; the abundance of water wa3^s for timber floating, and the proximity to the Petersburg and foreign timber markets have made it possible to exploit all timber products. There has been no real forestry at all in these regions. Everything which had any marketable value and could bring profit to the seller has been offered for sale. The forest owners see no object in t^-ing up capital in timber- w^orking, when there is a demand for the raw material as it is, and the result of this point of view is that there is scarcely any timber-working industry in these regions. It is found most profitable to export the raw material direct from the forests». Many of these private forests have been badly cut about, and in the places where the}- have escaped, this has been due to difficulties of trans- port. In spite of this merciless felling, however, the supply of timber is (1905) still great, and furnishes a considerable quantity' of logs and fuel, almost as 13 194 (). Lduni'iith. Tlic I'ortsts and Fortstry. great as twenty or thirty years ago, but with the difference that the size of the logs has diminished, and fuel is hewed from wood of inferior quality, Twenty or twenty-five years ago no tree was felled unless it measured five vershoks (22 ^j^ centimetres) at a height of three fathoms above the ground. Now much smaller stems are taken, and the timber is felled before it is full grown. As sawlogs are most in demand, they are the forest product which has been most devastated. Out of the 1,967,663 hectares belonging to the peasant communities, 1,771.082 hectares are called »forestlands». This area includes 1,069,382 hec- tares of real, utilisable forest, and 701,700 of bog, rock and waste land. These are divided between the three provinces as follows; utilisable bog, rock and I'^o^"'^^ f^j.^gt 1^„^1 ^^gtg lan^i total. Olonets ' 274,966^ 119,287 394,253 Petrosavodsk 464,737 308,544 773.281 Povenets 329,679 273,869 603,548 Total 1,069,382 701,700 1,771,082 The peasants of the government of Olonets have only a conditional right to their forests and the forest produce. The population is allowed to take wood from the forests for household requirements, and to sell a portion of the timber for cutting, but the sums thus realised do not go to the peasants. The capital is placed in state funds, and the mone}- may only be drawn with the permission of the appropriate authority. This regulation has helped to pro- tect the forests, although illegal timber cutting has been general. Since the year 1905, now that legislation has put the peasants on the way to become the owners of their plots of land, there has been a striking increase oi timber selling, generally for a mere song. The authorities report that »it is almost impossible to combat this evil, for volosts and zemstvos with one or two wood- wards canrK)t bring to book such illicit timber trade, especially as the peasants feel no obligation to obey the prohibition, and regard themselves as complete owners of the land which has been granted to them». It is specially remarked that in spite of this devastation of the forests and in spite of the great forest fires which ravage these regions every year, the forests still possess »an enor- mous quantity of exceedingly valuable timber». Generally speaking, the forests belonging to the peasants were about the year 1905 still little behind the state forests in the quantity of timber they contained. According to the information which is available, it would seem that the FKNNIA 42 No. 3. 195 forests of Olonets, Petrosavodsk a'hd Povenets altogether come to 6,472,146 liectares (98 7o of the whole land area, excluding water) and that of this 4,076,395 is utilisable (productive and fairly productive) forest land. The amount of timber in the forests. Direct detailed figures of the amount of timber in the forests of Olonets Carelia have not been obtainable. An ap- proximate calculation is, however, possible from the table we have, showing the extent of the state forests, the quantity of timber per hectare, the per- centages of sawlogs, and the particulars as to the kinds of tree. The calcula- tions give the following result as far as the amount oi timber in the state forests is concerned; Amount of Timber in the State Forests. Province Area of the state forests Amount of timber in the state forests Total area Utih- sable land Pine and Fir Forest Deci- duous Forest 'I\jtal Timber Trees (included in the foregoing) Hectares Cubic metres of .solid timber Olonets . . . Petrosavodsk Povenets . . 1 ' ; 1 462,458 311,472 64,265,0001 9,847,000' 47,112,000 17,054,000 372,324 250,9481 40,655,000 8,897,000^ 49,552,000 10,833,000 3,349,500| 1 .406,269 206,635,000 16,925,000 223,560.000 35,733,000 Total 4,184,282 1,868,689 311,555,000 35,669,000 347.224,000 63,620,000] The »utilisable>> or according to our terminologj', the »productive» forest lands give the following average quantities of timber per hectare; Quantity of Timber per Hectare of State Forests. i Province Pine and Fir Forest Deciduous Forest Total Timber Trees Ci ibic metres of .solid timl jer Olonet.s . . . . Petrosavodsk . Povenets . . . 206 162 146 32 1 35 12 I 238 197 158 55 43 25 i Average for the whole area .\ 158 18 176 ! 32 it^. 196 O. Luinirot/i, The- Fortsts and Forestry. Il we assume that the a\erage cubic volume of timber trees shown in the table is composed of trunks of 0.80 cubic metre average size (a diameter of about 30 centimetres at breast height), there would be an average of 69 timber trees per hectare in Olonets, 54 in Petrosavodsk and 31 in Povenets. Thus in the whole area there would be an average of 40 timber trees per hec- tare. This calculation would give a total of 78,700,000 timber trees of the size supposed in all the state forests. As was to be expected, these calculations correspond to the quantities of timber in the Carelian forests on the Finnish side of the frontier. The forests on the two sides of the frontier are also in the main the same in appearance and character of growth. Further north, in Povenets, the forest lands become more barren, and the trees lower and less dense. In the province of Petrosa- vodsk, on Ivake Onega, the ground is richer and the forests grow faster and more luxuriantly, with the result that the percentage of mixed and deciduous forest is liigher. In the Ostretchino forests west of southern Onega, on the otlier hand, the percentage of fir is higher. The best forests, however, are in the i^rovince of Olonets, in the state demesnes of Kotkatjarvi, Sadneniki- forskoi, Kontushe— Lojanskoi and Vaasheni, or in other words on the upper and middle reaches of the Olonka and Vaasheni rivers, and thence southwards towards the Svir. Here, for example in Kotkatjarvi demesne, the quantity of timber per hectare rises to more than 300 cubic metres. The amount of timber in the forests controlled by the Board of Mines and other authorities and belonging to the towns, monasteries and church, ought to be calculable from the above averages for the state forests. Thus estimated, the quantity of timber in these forests would be as follows; Pine and fir forests 63,200,000 cubic metres. Deciduous * 7,200,000 » -> Total 70,400,000 cubic metres. Timber trees (included above) 8,800,000 cubic metres. The number of timber trees would then be about 11,000,000. It has already been mentioned that the forests in private ownership have in course of time already been felled to an appreciable extent. The large timber has mostly been sold, and the smaller timber thinned and spoiled by unscien- tific and — from the point of view of forestry — unprofitable cutting. Never- theless, according both to published information and to verbal a.ssuran- ces, the timber in these forests may e\en now be estimated, in spite of all, at about 80 square metres per hectare of »utilisable forest». Seeing that the area FEKNIA 42 Xo. 3. 197 of these forests is, as stated above, 49,549 hectares, the timber in the private forests of Olonets, Petrosavodsk and Povenets may be estimated in round figures at about 4,000,000 cubic metres of solid timber. About 3,200,000 cubic metres of this would be pine and fir, and 800,000 deciduous trees. The volume of timber trees can scarcely be given even in estimate. Forests belonging to the peasant communities. We have already referred to the belief that these forests are not far inferior to those belonging to the state. They have to some extent been protected b}^ the fact that the peasants had no right of freely disposing of them. It is, however, probable that conditions have changed during the last few ^-ears. We have stated that the authorities complain that since 1905, when the peasants were to be given full rights of ownership in their plots, ^illicit cutting* has begun to increase so much that it cannot be prevented. It is probable that this cutting has still increased during the last decade. This is likely to have been especially the case during the war, when the shortage of coal and mineral oil in Petrograd caused an enormous importation of wood into that city, some of it from Finland. In Olonets Carelia it has been the provinces of Olonets and Petrosavodsk which were most exposed to this timber cutting, which was of course generally car- ried on without any reference to the principles of forestry. The forests of Povenets, on the other hand, were probably better protected by their remote position and poor means of communication. In estimating the quantity of timber in the forests belonging to the pea- sant communities, we cannot use the same averages as applied with regard to the timber in the state forests. According to probable estimates however, we may take the following approximations for the three provinces together without danger of being very greatly mistaken; Pine and fir forest, 110 cubic metres per hectare of utilisable forest land. Deciduous >> 10 >> » » » » » ^> >> Total 120 I '» '» ^^ '■> Timber trees 20 » » included above. According to these figures, the whole amount of timber in the peasants' forests would be as follows; Pine and fir forest 1 17,700,000 cubic metres. Deciduous >> 10,700,000 » Total 128,400,000 cubic metres. Timber trees 21 ,400,000 cubic metres. 198 O. Ldiiut'o/h, Tlie Forests ;iiul Forestry. The number of timber trees would thus be about 26,750,000. According to these calculations, the total amount of timber in Olonets, Petrosavodsk and Povenets \\ ould come to about 550 million cubic metres, or an average of 135 cubic metres per hectare of utilisable forest land. I twill ha\e been noticed that in making these calculations we have omitted the less valuable timber which is to be found on bog and other waste land. Timber cutling and transport. The methods of hewing and tran.sport are the same as in Finland. The trees are felled, shaped to logs or fuel and con- ^•e^•ed to the water course where they are to be floated, by forest workers on contract work, most of whom are the peasants of the neighbourhood. The payment depends on the length and thickness of the logs and the distance thev have to be con\eyed. Iniel cutting is paid by the >>forest cord», which varies in size. The most frequent cords are the »shesterka» and the »deviatka». The for- mer varies in height from 10 to 12 tchetverts and in length from 18 to 24 tchetverts (1 tchetvert = 7 inches) while the latter is 9— 10 1/2 tchetverts high and 18 — 24 long. The fuel is cut into lengths of 1 i/g arshins in the shes- terka cord and 2 1/4 arshins in the deviatka cord (1 arshin = 28 inche.s). The purchaser arranges for the floating himself, or if he contracts for it, the contractor is supplied with all necessaries, from cables, ropes, anchors and boats to the very eating vessels for the workmen. It used to be the cus- tom for each purchaser to manage his own floating, but in the larger water- w^ays joint floating is now the rule. The timber from the southern provinces is floated along the waterways to I^adoga, and thence to Petrograd. Some of that from Petrosavodsk stops at the sawmills round Lake Onega. Po\-enets may be dix'ided from this point of view into three districts. The north-western district, which is the smallest, sells and transports most of its timber to Finland, a rather larger district in the south sends its timber to the sawmills on Lake Onega or even to Petrograd, while the timber from the largest district, that in the north, is transported to the coast of the White Sea and to the saw^mills there situated. Timber floating usually begins about April 15th to 20th, but in the north not before the beginning of May. In the streams and rivers the timber is floated in the same way as in Finland. On Lake Onega it is transported in rigid rafts, which are towed in strings of 20 or 30 to \'osnesenia at the mouth of the Svir. If the weather is favourable the journey from Povenets to \'osne- senia takes three days, but in the contrary- case it may take as nuich as a fortnight. The timber from the spring floating does not usually reach Petro- FIvXXIA 42 No. 3. 199 grad until the autumn. Before the war, the average cost of transport from Povenets on Lake Onega to \'osnesuia was 15 kopeks per log, and the cost of towing thence to Petrograd, 40 kopeks. The average cost per log in the pro- \-ince of Povenets, including transport to Petrograd, was 1 rouble 20 kopeks, a charge which can only be borne by the larger timber. As for the floating to Finland, timber from Repola in the province of Pov- enets is transported for example as far as Kotka, a journey of 800 versts, 105 versts in the province of Povenets and the rest in Finland. Nevertheless the cost per log was little more than a rouble, or cheaper than export to Petro- grad. Fuel and props are floated loose or in small rafts until they can be con- veyed by barges. The fuel is then generally landed and sawn into billets of suitable length. The barges carry 400 — 650 cords, according to the size of the cord and tlie dryness of the wood. The tugs tow several barges in a string down the Svir, the canals and the Neva to Petrograd. The cutting and transport of timber is an important source of income to the inliabitants of Olonets Carelia. This is shown by the following figures for the vears 1905—1908 for the whole government of Olonets. Number of workmen and their earnings from the cutting and transport of timber in the government of Olonets, in the years igos — 1908. Kind of Work. 1 1905 1906 1 1907 1908 c ■J-. S > A Ivarnings in roubles Number of workers Ivarnings in roubles Number cf workers Ivarnings in roubles Number of workers ^ Earnings in roubles Felling, transport . 1 1 and preliminary work 25,410 995,324 25,83511.036,280 27,170 1,122,023 24,710 908,780 Floating 6619 90,378 10,060; 204,684 1 9,911 142,952 10,413 189,451 ( )ther water 1 1 transport .... 6,557 375,312 6,780 233,888 44,38 216,332 4.249 269,333 Total 38,586 1,461,014 42,675 1,474,852 41,519 1,481,307 39,3721 1.367,564 Sale and delivery of timber products. As is to be expected, the demand for timber floated to the White Sea by the waterways of the province of Po\-- 200 O. Lonnroih. The Forests and Forestry. enets is almost entirely for large logs. It is said that recently purchasers in this region have not been inclined to accept timber under 6 vershoks X 9 — 10 arsliins (= 10 V2 "^ ^^^ ~~ ^^^ inches). As a rule only the lower part of a stem is taker, the top being left in the forest. On the other hand, smaller timber is transported from Povenets to Finland, and, as has been stated, not only logs but also fuel and props to Lake Onega. The northern part of Lake Onega is the chief centre of the timber trade in the country. Here are the sawmills that work for the export trade, two of them in Povenets and four in Petrosa- vodsk: But they only consume a comparatively small amount of raw material. As stated above, the timber produce is b}- preference sold unworked, direct to the, place where it is to be used, in Petrograd or abroad, instead of any intensive wood-working industry being carried on in its country of origin. The demand for wood produce, especially fuel, grows keener as Petrograd is approached. In the north of the province of Petrosavod.sk the trade in large timber has the predominance, but further south, as also in the pro\-ince of Olonets, the chief trade is undoubtedly in smaller stuff. As a rule, Olonets furnishes half the amount of fuel which is transported down the Neva to the Petrograd market, (cp. the chapter on Trade and Industr}-). The state forests supply the greater part of the timber which is exported from this province. The following table shows the quantities of wood pro- duce supplied by these forests between 1874 and 1908. Timber supplied by tJie state forests in the years 1874 — igo8. Province of 1 Province of Province of Olonets I Petrosavodsk Povenets Year is O 1884-88 2,480 5,860 12,620 41,360 37,340 8,340 52440 55,560 I) > > 1889-93 7,840 1,160 14,420 2.700 32 680 38,640 54,940 42.500| » ) > 1894—98 _ — 11,480 14,740 19,920 10,480 31.400 25.220! » ) 1896 03 — 62,740 58,440 13,840 26,980 76,580 85,420 year 1904 — 6,700 49.500 19,400 34,900 26,100, 84,400 i> 1905 — — 8 800 51.400 10 000 — 18,800 51,400 » 1906 2,300 9,700 47,500 22,300 - 14.500 49.800 46.500 » 1907 2,300 — • 42,100 94,100' — — 44,400 94,100 » 1908 — ; 16,500 20,600 6,700 11,5001 11,600 32,100i 34,800 2U2 O. Ldii)i>u(Ji, The Forests and Forestry. The fij^iires in this table do not suggest any such increase of production as is shown by the state forests. On the contrary, a certain decHne is obser- vable, especially in the case of logs. Trade in these seems almost to have ceased in the province of Olonets, which suggests that the large timber in the private forests has already been exhausted. For the rest, the statistics issued by the zemst^-o of the go\-ernment, referred to above, point out that the primary figures on which this table is based may be unreliable and inaccurate, seeing that the\- are gathered from private landowners. The sales and consumption may possibly be greater than has been reported. The statistical information available for the forests belonging to the pea- sants begins only with the year 1894. The following table gives the figures from 1894 to 1908. Timber supplied by the forests owned by the peasants in the years 18^4—1908. Province of j Province of Province of Olonets [Petrosavodsk I Povenets Total Year w ij 03 Xi «3 6/3 ^ -i-> 1 tH JS (V rt V s tc rrt s U <+-l M (V Xi .C X u ^ u c u S£ a> 4J CI S C 3 "5 a 3 rt U « <+-i u '^ 1 U2 X: '^-| k i A >. u "5 ' *-> Q X Q P s n d) tt fe Olonets .... _ J 0,81 — 0,69 _ Petrosavodsk — 0,56 — 0,58 — 0,45 i - 0,70 1,43 f 0,52 Povenets . . . 1,60 0,76 1,43; — 1,80 — 0,55 - 1,60! 0,18 204 O. Lonnyoth, The Forests and Fortstry. Average price per cord (g.7i cubic metres) of smaller timber, in roubles. \ 1902 -3 1903-4 1904-5 1905 -6 1906 -7 ;-< u •- 1 u o 0) ^ u J3 e^ Ji ^ >» ^ Q 05 0^ Q (U Q CO Q Q u 1 u u ti fc ■ fe 'hi( & Jj-, Olonets .... _ 2,70 2,06 _ 1,95 _ 2,15 6,80 2,28 Petrosavodsk - 3,15 — 2,73 — 2,56 4,65 3,10 3,83 1 2,14 Povenets . . . — 2,40 — — - — - — - 1 0,98 The prices for the peasants' sales are even lower than those for wood produce from the state forests. Provinces of Kem and Alexandrovsk in the Government of Archangel - The statements as to the area of the provinces of Kem and Alexandrovsk (Kola) in Russian statistical literature show various discrepancies. According to Strelbitski (1889) the area of the province of Kem, including inland waters and the archipelago, is 49,479 square kilometres, and excluding water 40,588 sq. km. According to N. Mamadishky (1908) on the other hand, the terri- tory excluding water conies to 49,718 sq. km. Planimetric calculations upoa our maps, again, show that the area of the province of Keai including water is at least 70,200 sq. km., and excluding water about 62,500 sq. km. It has been impossible to discover from the sources available what are the reasons for the discrepancies. It is however probable that Strelbitski, at any rate, drew the northern boundary- of the province of Kem considerably further .south than it is now shown on the Russian maps. On some old maps this boundar>' is marked as running south of the communes of Kieretti, Kouda, Kandalaks and Oulanka. But these communes belong administrativeh' to Kem and not to Alexandrovsk. The area of this latter province is given by Strelbitski, as 155,204 sq. km. including inland waters and arcliipelago, and excluding them as 148,168. According to ]\Iamadisliky this territory, exclu- ding water, would be 145,603 .sq.km. On the other hand planimetric measure- ment on the map gives about 142,300 sq. km. including water (43,000 sq. km. north of the limit of pine and fir trees, and 99,300 sq. km. south ot it),. and excluding water about 134,800 sq. km. FIvXXIA 42 Xo. 3. 205 According to Mamadisliky, 4,901,783 hectares oi the land area belong to the state, 1,241 hectares to the church, 20,535 to the towns, 415 1/2 ^o the pea- sant communities, and 33 hectares to factories etc (^). The land granted to the peasants for reclamation and the forests assigned for cutting of household timber came to 6,671 hectares. According to the same statistics, 14,542,329 hectares in the province of Alexandrovsk (Kola) are held b}^ the state, 88 by the church, 13,312 by monasteries, 2,404 by the towns and 1,907 by the vil- lage communities. In addition the peasants have the use of 235 hectares in land for reclamation and forest for household purposes. Mamadishky states further that out of the 4,901,783 hectares in the pro- vince of Kem which belong to the state, 894,211 hectares or 1 8 ^^ is occupied by bog, rock, etc. and that the remaining 4,007,572 hectares (82 %) is »uti- lisable» land, almost all covered with forest. Other sources in the literature of forestry give the amount of utilisable forest land belonging to the state as about 5,000,000 hectares. If we calculate the whole area of state lands from this figure, by applying the percentage above mentioned for utilisable ground, the sum comes in round figures to about 6,100,000 hectares, or appreciably more than the total given by Mamadisliky. If to this be added the lands be- longing to the chuich, the towns and the peasants, 70,052 hectares altogether, the total area of the province, excluding water, comes to about 6,170,000 hec- tares, which approaches the figures already named as the result of planimet- ric calculation. For the rest, the relation of 82 % to 18 % between utilisable and waste land cannot be consonant with the fact. Probably the proportions of 60 7o and 40 % correspond more closely to the actual conditions in the pro- vince of Kem. Out of the 14,542,329 hectares of state lands in Kola, Mamadishky gives 10,251,750 hectares or 71 % as being bog, rock etc., while 4,290,579 hectares, or 29 "/(, are utilisable ground. There are however said to be only 3,170,000 hectares of utilisable forest land in Kola south of the limit of pine and fir trees. The editor of the periodical JltconpoMbimjieHHiiK-b states in the publication Jlbca CbBepa 11 iix-l rjiaBHT.HUiia HV/KflW that in the year 1912 the utilisable state forests were divided between the various forestry districts as follows; District of Sorokka, in the Province of Kem. Sunia Forestry District 384,999 hectares Sorokka » » 419,133 » Total 804,132 hectares 1) The 29,150 hectares belonging to the Solovets monastery are uoti ncluded. 206 O. Lonurnih. The Forests and Fnrestry. District of Kent, in the Province of Kent. Wiokkinienii Forestrj' District 675,526 hectares Uhtua » » 591,087 Paanajarvi » » 685,099 » Kern » » 1,050,536 Total 3.002,248 hectares District of Koutu, in iJif Provinces of Kem and Alexandrovsk [Kola). Kieretti Forestry District 507,084 hectares Kouta » » 504,638 Kandalaks » «> 617,296 >y Umba » * 1,587,925 >^ Total 3,216,943 hectares District of Kola in the Province of Alexandrovsk. Kola Forestrs' District 820.047 hectares Petchenga » » 319,417 Total 1.139.464 hectares This giv'es a total of 8,162,787 hectares of iitiHsable forest. Russian sources provide much less detailed information about forestry and the forests of Kem and Alexandrovsk in general than is the case with regard to the government of Olonets. The information available mostly applies to the extensive government of Archangel as a whole, not to particular parts of it, and is also ver\' defective. This is no doubt due to the simple fact that no figures based on land survey and calculations are in existence. I<" is, for in- stance, instructive to note that out of the whole area of state forests in the province of Archangel, 46,940,189 hectares, only 4 1 8,430 hectares had been recorded by the ^-ear 1909. and only 2,124,912 had been inspected from a for- estry point of view. There are nevertheless approximate calculations of the quantity of tim- ber in the state forests of these provinces. The timber is in general not so dense as. and shorter than tliat in Olonets Carelia. The pine is the predomi- nant tree, and fvurther north th-^ fir. In the districts of Sorokka and Kem the average is about 80 cubic metres per hectare of utilisable forest. About 60 % of this is pine. 35 7o ^i^ and 5 % deciduous trees. The peicentage of timber trees is 25. According to these figures, the quantities of timber in the districts of Sorokka and Kem would be FI'XXIA 42 No. 3. 207 Pine and fir forests 289,285,000 cubic metres Deciduous » 15,225,000 » Total 304,510,000 cubic metres. Timber trees, included above 76,128,000. If the average size of a timber log is counted as 0.70 cubic metres, there would be about 108,750,000 such trees in the territory. The forests are still thinner and lower in the districts of Kouta and Kola. Finnish foresters who have visited these regions say that the average an)Ouut of timber per hectare of utilisable forest cannot be estimated above 30 cubic metres at most. The fir is here the predominant tree (70 ^/q), while the pine forms 25 and deciduous trees 5 %. Timber trees form about 20 ^f^. According to these figures, the total amount of timber in the district would be Pine and fir trees , ". 124,157,000 cubic metres, Deciduous » 6,535,000 » » Total 130,692,000 cubic metres. Timber trees 26,138,000 cubic metres (included above). According to these calculations, the total amount of timb'^r in the provin- ces of Kem and Alexandrovsk would come to about 435,000,000 cubic metres, or an average of 35 cubic metres per hectare of utilisable forest land. Cutting and transport. The hewing, transport and floating in this province are the same as further south in the province of Povenets. Practically nothing but large timber is hewn, though near the sea some props are alsQ cut. Fuel is only cut for the needs of the region itself. Floating is facilitated by the numerous powerful watercourses which flow into the White Sea. In the district of Sorokka, the timber is mostly conveyed down the Uikujoki and its many tributaries. The chief floating channel in the district of Kem is the Tchirkkakemijoki, and its continuation, the river Kem, which runs into the sea at the town of Kem. The Tchirkkakemijoki is joined at Jyskyjarvi by the great water system of Kuittijarvi, which extends right up to the Finnish frontier. The Ponkamajoki and the Kalka- joki (which runs into Enkijarvi) are also used as floating channels. Kouta district has extensive channels in the south, in the waters of Tuoppajarvi, Paiijarvd and Koutajiirvi. This system is also joined by the waters from Ou- lanka, Paanajar\'i and Tuntsajoki from the I'innish side. Nearer the coast there are the waters of Kieretinjarvi and Loukskojejarvi. ^Further to the north the Nivajoki flows from Imandra to Kandalaks, and at Umba there is 20(S O. LoinuolJi, The Forests and T'orestry. the Umbajoki. The most important floating channels in Kola Lapmark are the Nuortijoki, which rises on the Finnish side, and its continuation the Tuulo- majoki, which runs into the Arctic Ocean at the Kola Fjord. Here too, as in Olonets Carelia, the hewing, floating and transport torni an important source of income for the rural population. Especially of late, -since the peddling in Finland carried on by White Sea Carelians has become less remunerative, the inhabitants have taken more and more to forest work. The sale and export 0/ timber. The sawmills on the White Sea have recently obtained a good supply of timber from White Sea Carelia. There are sawmills working for export in Sorokka, Kern, Kieretti, Kouta and Umba. As noted in the chapter on Trade and Industry, the timber export has already reached notable dimensions. The sawmills have, however, chiefly devoted themseh'es to the working of large timber, so that the chief demand is for logs, wliile small timber is neglected. The trunks only are taken from the forests, the tops being left to rot. There is no detailed information available as to the amount of timber cut. The periodical mentioned above states that during the years\1906— 1 908, the following quantities were taken yearly; in the Suma forestry district, 10 cubic feet per dessiatin of utilisable forest (1 dessiatin = 2.86 acres, or I.0925 hectares) in the district of Sorokka 6, in \'uokkinienii 5, in Uhtua 4, in Paana- jarvi 2, in Kem 2, in Kierretti 6, in Kouta 9, in Kandalaks 3, in Umba 2, in Kola 4 and in Petchenga 3. On the basis of these annual averages, the total amount of timber hewn would be as shown on p. 209. These figures are lower than the corresponding ones from the state forests in Finland in the same latitude. Thus, during the same period, the Fin- nish inspection districts of Uletrii.sk and Ijo, which border on Kem, fur- nished an average of 0.40 and 0.28 cubic metres of timber per hectare of productive forest land respectively. In the Finnish state forests which border upon the district of Kouta the average cutting has been between O.25 and 0.40 cubic metres per hectare. Proceeds. No special information has been available as to the receipts from the state forests ot this portion of the government of Archangel. An article signed M. H, C. under the title Jllica Ci^Bepa in the periodical IlaBtcTift ApxaHb. 0-Ba HsyieHifl PyccK. Cifiepa (1912), says that the gross receipts from the whole government of Archangel between the years 1906 and 1908 came to an annual average of 8 kopeks per dessiatin of utilisable forest and the nett receipts to 6 kopeks. According to this reckoning, the annual state income from the forests in the provinces of Kem and Alexandrovsk would have been 720,000 roubles gross I i FJvNXIA 42 No. 3. 209 Forestry District Area of Utilisable Forest, in hectares Average amount cut in the years 1906—8. 'r ^ . K- Average lotal cubic , amount "r!, u per 'hectare, solid timber i„ ^ubic metres District of Sorokka Suma vSorokka District of Ketti Vuokkiniemi Uhtua Paanajarvi Kemi District of Kottta Kieretti . Kouta .,....:,. Kandalax Umba District of Kola Kola Petchenga 384,999 419,133 675,526 591,087 685,099 1,050 536 507,084 504,638 617,296 1,587,925 820,047 319,417 99.730 65,150 87,500 61,170 35,500 54,430 78,820 117 650 47,970 82,270 84,970 8 250 0,26 0,16 0,13 0,10 0,07 0,05 0.16 0,23 0,08 0,05 1 1 1 0,10 0,03 Total and average 8,162,787 823,410 0,10 i and 540,000 roubles nett, or 9 kopeks gross per hectare of utilisable land and 6.5 kopeks nett. These figures are obviously based on the information in the annual report of the Russian Department of Forestry, according to which all the state forests in the government of Archangel, comprising 33,559,634 hectares of utilisable forest land, produced in 1906 — 8 an annual income of about 2,600,000 roubles. The gross income from the provinces of Kem and Alexandrovsk would thus, if calculated according to the area of utilisable land, come to about 700,000 roubles. This result is probably too low, for the income from the extensive state forests of the district of Petchora must be put lower than that from the centres of production on the White Sea and the Gulf of Mesen, and the average is thereb}- reduced. But in any case it is clear that the state income from these forests, and the price of timber, are very low in proportion to the value of the forests, especially when it is remembered that 14 210 O. Ldnriroth. The Forests and Forestry. the corresponding forests on the Finnish side produce a nett income of Fnik. 0.80 — 3: — per hectare of productive forest. Kven this figure must be consi- dered low, and is due to the small demand. An idea of the timber production of the provinces of Kem and Alexand- rov.sk can also be obtained from the statistics of the exports of the coast towns. As .stated in the cha])ter on Trade and Industry, the export of wood produce in 1904 was as follows; Port Quantity Value in roubles Suma 56 tons {^) 296 Sorokka 22,723 » 525,769 Suiku 44 » - 292 Kem 17,752 ■> 410,628 Kieretti 4,786 stds 242,300 Kouta 50, 1 50 tons 1 ,340,478 Umba 10,710 stds 426,050 total 90,725 tons and 15,496 stds 2,945,813 roubles As shown above, nearly all the forest land in the province of Kem and Alexandrovsk belongs to the state. It is, therefore, not possible to include in the calculations any private forestry worth mentioning. The wood which the agricultural population needs and cannot obtain from its very small shares in the forest belonging to the village communities, or from the plots leased by the state for cultivation on a forty years' tenancy (an average of 0.13 hectares per homestead in the province of Alexandrovsk and l.ii hectars in Kem) may be taken from the state forests to a fixed amount per homestead per year. As the above shows, the forests of East Carelia represent important natural wealth which is still very largely untouched. These forests have been left in peace for thousands of years, the great forest fires alone changing their form ox the kinds of tree. The scanty population has not been enough to diminish the stores appreciably, except in the regions near the centres of consumption in the south. It is only during the last few decades that the wood produce industry has begun to exploit these resources, and it is still in the earliest stage of development. The present is, however, a critical period even with regard to the forest (1) One metric ton = 1,000 kilogrammes = 0.9844 English tons. FENNIA 42 No. 3. 211 resources of East Carelia. The timber trade has already received an inii)etiis on the coast of the White Sea. Business men are devoting more and more attention to the treasures of the forests near the coast, and the new Mur- man railway has made it easier than it used to be to transport machinerj^ and other means of production to these regions so rich in raw material. As soon as the war comes to an end and normal conditions return, much greater enterprise ma.\ be expected in the wood industr}-. Much remains to be done however, especially in the impro\-ement of trans- port and means of communication in East Carelia, before the forest industry can reach a point of development worthy of the value of the forests. The tim- ber floating channels must be improved, roads must be built and railways laid in sviitable places, so as to provide a means of disposing also of the smaller timber. Only then can the forest capital be expected to 3'ield the rent and the income suggested above, and only then will the forests receive real care. Onni Lonnroth. J." Fish and Fishing. A. The'White Sea. The fish in the White Sea comprise about forty species, of which the most important are the herring or sell, sea salmon and navaga. The salmon-trout (taimen), cod and flounder come next, and the vendace or White Sea smelt and polar cod also have some importance. ' Salmon fishing is the most important on the Ter Coast from Ponoi to Kan- dalaks. In the villages near Kandalaks herring fishing comes first, and salmon takes the second place. On the coast of the Gulf of Onega herring and navaga are the main catch. Herring fishing. The White Sea herring (Clupea harengus) is known to the Finnish peasantry- by its Russian name »selt», and is just as peculiar to this inland sea as the »stromming>> is to the Baltic. It differs from the ocean herring both in its smaller size and in flavour. This is specialh' true of the herring caught in the shallow Gulf of Onega, from whence come the greater part of the White Sea herring in commerce. According to Aleyiev, a large her- ring from the Gulf of Onega is about 17 Va" '^ centimetres long, a medium one 14 1/2, and the smaller fish sold about 12 Y2 centimetres. The White Sea her- ring is generally of excellent flavour, whether used fresh or salted, pro\ ided 212 O. Lonvroih, The Forests and Forestry. that good salt is used in salting, and the care and cleanliness are observed wliich are necessary to the production of good preserves. There is very extensive herring fishing at Sorokka. The fish are caught here late in the autumn, from the beginning of November, when the water is still open. As many as five or six hundred boats may then be seen at work in the Gulf of vSorokka, two to each net. Later on, the fish are caught under the ice. At this season the fish approach the coast in dense shoals, pursued by gulls and seals; the appearance of the latter always shows that herring are near. The shoals are so dense that the fisherman in his boat can feel with a pole where the fish are; he can similarly find out whether the}- are herring or smelt, for shoals of the latter do not feel so dense and vigorous as the former. As soon as a shoal of herring is discovered the seine is thrown out into the water. If the catch is small, only two or three horse loads, it is drawn into the boat, but a richer catch is dragged back to land or the edge of the ice. This net (.seine) is only used near the shore, and in water less than two fathoms deep. The seine used in herring fishing is twelve to fourteen foot deep, its bag is four fathoms long and the arms fifteen fathoms. In fishing under the ice either the seine is used or the junket, which is reall}' intended for catching navaga. In the absence of cold storage establishments, the price of the fish is ver\- variable (about 50 kopeks to 4 roubles per 1 ,000), and depends upon the weather. The fish .are spread out on the ice immediately they are caught, so as to get thoroughly frozen, and then gathered into heaps. There is no question of salting or otherwise preserving them. The following figures show the annual catch of herring at Sorokka; Year 1906 1 ,200,000 kg. » 1907 78,400 » » 1908 59,200 » » 1910 4,800,000 » In the dee])est bay of the White vSea, the Gulf of Kandalaks, herring are caught in the spring and early summer as well as in the autumn and begin- ning of the winter. The most important fishing is at the villages of Kandalaks, Knja.sa, Kouta, Mustajoki and Kieretti, in April and May, under the ice. Fishing is also carried on to a less extent after the ice melts, and again for a short time after midsummer. The autumn fishing begins at the end of August or in September, and lasts till November, when the sea freezes. The fishermen state that the Kandalaks herring are generally larger than hose from other parts of the \Miite Sea. 1,000 fish from Kandalaks weigh 160 FENNIA 42 No. 3. 213 kg., but 1 ,000 from Sorokka only 40 kg. The fish caught under the ice in April and May are smaller, being young spawning fish, than those which make their way to the coastal waters after the ice melts. The autumn herring are consider- ably larger and fatter, and obtain a higher price. The seine used is generally 50 — 60 or 80 fathoms long, and 4—6 fathoms deep. A single net takes about 2,800 — 3,200 kg. of fish at Kouta in the April fishery, or in a good catch as much as 8,000 — 9,000 kg. The fish are salted in the most primitive fashion in small barrels called »botsenka», each of which holds about 7—10 kg., or 250—300 fish. The amount of salt used is about 2 — 3 kg. The sanie nets are used as in the spring fishing. Each net is worked by two boats, each with a crew of three or four men. The catch is smaller than in the spring, partly because a number of the fishermen are still awaj- at the summer fishing on the Murman Coast, and partly because of difficulties due to the ice. According to Rosov (1913), whose calculations seem to be comparatively reliable, the annual catch of herring amounts to an average of 155,000—180,000 barrels. The same writer estimates the number of nets in the communes ot Kandalaks, Knjasa, Kouta, Mustajoki and Kieretti at five hundred. Most of the salt herring is sent to Archangel, but the Carelians in the in- terior also use a good deal, and give potatoes, grain, etc. in exchange. From Kieretti for example about 12,000—15,000 barrels are sold annually, and from Mustajoki about 4,000. The statistical information concerning the herring fishery- of the White Sea as a whole, and regarding the fisheries in general, appears to be far from reliable, and must therefore be u.sed with caution. The contradictions in the statistics are partly to be explained by the fact that different publications include larger or smaller areas in the White Sea fishery. According to the statistical bulletins issued by the »International Marine Investigation-) the following quantities of herring have been obtained from the White Sea; Year 1903 2,647,264 kg. » 1904 116,464 » >■> 1905 324,416 » ^ 1906 3,423,808 » » 1907 1,412,368 » » 1908 897,328 » » 1909 942,960 » * 1910 7,133,984 » 214 O. Ldn}iroih, The Forests and Fort'stry. According to L. Finstad the catches of herring in 1912—14 were as fol- lows; Year 1912 4,638,000 kg. .) 1913 3,074,176 » » 1914 1,416,144 » The same writer shows the catch of the last mentioned year divided be- tween the \-arious provinces as below; Alexandrovsk 1 29, 1 04 Kern 1,019,360 Onega 43,040 Archangel 224,640 Salmon Fishing. After herring, salmon take the chief place in the White Sea fishery. The chief catch is the sea salmon {Salmo salar); salmon trout or grey salmcn (Salmo trutta) are also caught, but to a less extent. The fishing mostl}' takes place at the mouths of the streams and rivers up which the sal- mon go to breed, and on the seacoasts. The salmon fishing begins when the ice melts, generally in May, and continues all the summer till the beginning i of the autumn, or till the winter. In the river Kem, and at a couple of other j places on the White Sea coast, the autumn is the most favourable season. As already mentioned, the salmon fishing is the most remunerative in all the villages on the south coast of Kola, from Ponoi to Umba. Salmon are also caught off the Solovets islands, where there is abundance of fish of all kinds. At Ponoi and Varzuga, salmon are caught almost exclusively in the rivers oi which these villages are situated, but otherwise, and especially on the Tei Coast, salmon fishing is carried on as actively on the sea-coast as in the rivers.' F'ixed and movable sweep-nets are used, including draw-nets, and, in the rivers, salmon traps. The average catch of salmon at Kandalaks and on the adjacent coast is estimated at 57,600 kg., divided as follows between the different communes; Kuzomen 16,000, Umba 24,000, Kandalaks 1,600, Knjasa, 1,600, Kouta 8,000, Kieretti 4,800, and Ponkama 1,600. According to another estimate, the annual catch in the first ten A^ears of the present century only averaged 1 ,900 kg. ii "Kouta, and 1,200 (spring salmon) at Mustajoki. According to Alexeyeff 44,800 kg. were taken in the Ponoi river in the year 1909, 32,900 kg. at Varzuga in the same year, and 19,200 kg. at Umba. Salmon go as high up the Kem river FENNIA 42 No. 3. 215 '1 as Paanajarvi and occasionally higher, and there are many salmon fishing places on this river, but there are no particulars of the size of the catch in the sources available. According to one statement, 3,400 kg. were taken at Paana- jar\-i in 1910, 2,200 kg. at Usmana and 17,300 kg. at Uikujoki. The quantity of salmon trout cai:ght in addition to the salmon is generally not more than enough for local needs, but Kouta, for example, supplies about 500 kg. a year to commerce. The annual catch of salmon and salmon trout in the \\'hite vSea is estimated to average 320,000—480,000 kg. The above mentioned statistical bulletins give the following as the quantities of salmon and grey salmon caught in the White Sea in the years 1903—10. Year Kilogrammes. 1903 189,072 1904 311,360 1905 490,192 1906 479,472 1907 507,488 1908 569,152 1909 544,464 1910 479,568 The average tor the period was 446,300 kg. per year, which corresponds A'er\' well to the figures given above. Cod and navaga fishing. The White Sea produces not only the ordinary cod (Gadiis nwrrlma), but also two small arctic species, the navaga (Gadus na- vaga) and the polar cod (Gadus saida). The former is caught chiefly on the Kandalaks coast, as in the baj's of Knjasa, Kouta and Mustajoki, where a smaller quantity of polar cod is also said to be taken. Rosov gives the annual catch of cod at Kouta and Miistajoki as about 1 12,000— 128,000 kg., or about 600 — 700 kg. for each famih' in these villages. The navaga is more important than the cod or polar cod to the population round the White Sea. It is a small fish, 15 — 30 centimetres long, with rather a good flavour. Considerable numbers of this species are caught in the Gulf of Onega. Here the autumn is the best fishing season. As soon as the ice is strong enough to bear a man the navaga fishing begins, and it continues until Christmas, when the fish make their wa}^ to deeper waters to breed. In Jan- uary- or February, after spawning, they reappear on the coast, but the fishing is not then so active as in the autumu. The net most used is a long 216 K. M. Levander, Fish and Fi.sliing. narrow junket with tiiree bags, the mouth of which is 1 ft. 3 in. — 4 ft. 8 in. high, and has a guiding arm on each side. On the Keni Coast, between tlie Ruegijoki and the Vireniajoki, and especially in the shallow bays where the bottom is exposed at low tide, a kind of junket made of a close netting is also used. The navaga are also caught everywhere with hook and line, espe- cially by women. The women go out on the ice at high tide, cut a hole and begin to fish. The tackle is a short rod with a line, to which is fastened a three cornered bit of lead with snoods for the hooks. Dried sea- worms (Arenicola marina) are ased as bait. Aleyeff says that a skilful angler can catch 30 — 40 navaga in half an hour. Angling is the most ancient method of fishing. The junkets have come naore and more into use during recent decades, and angling is now onh' used for household requirements. Navaga are sold by the 1 ,000. The weight of a thousand varies, according to the size of the fish, and averages 64 — 80 kg. (Small navaga, weighing 30— 60 kg. per 1,000 are caught in the bays of Un.skaja and Lahtala; the biggest fish come from near the village of Koleshma, where the same number weigh 90-103 kg.). The price of fresh navaga varies with the season. It is high in cold weather, but sinks when there is a thaw. In the year 1912 navaga usually cost one ko- pek each at the place of catching. When sold in commerce they are almost invariabl}' frozen. According to Russian information in the bulletins of the International ^Marine Investigation, the following were the total quantities of navaga caught in the White Sea in the years 1903—10 Year Kilogrammes 1903 980,680 1904 860,480 1905 1,262,720 1906 ^ 2,055,776 1907 1,628,656 1908 "... 1,579,360 1909 1.293,392 1910 1,675,184 Thus the average annual catch during the period taken was 1,417,000 kg. With regard to the quantities of navaga caught in the different districts, it may be mentioned that according to L Finstad, the following were the tak- ings in 1913. FKXNIA 42 No. 3. 217 Province of Keni 272,880 -kg. » » Onega 104,000 » » » Archangel 194,400 » Flounder, vcndace and smelt fishing. The flounder is caught everywhere, but as a rule only for household needs. In addition to the ordinary flounder (Pleuronectes flesus) the White Sea produces the Dvina flounder (Pleuronectes dvinensis) , a less valuable species, and the plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) A certain amount of vendace (Coregonus lavaretus) is caught at Kandalaks, Kouta, Kalkalahti and Ponkama, etc. So too, the smelt (Osmenis eperlanus, v. Dvinensis) is taken at the mouths of rivers and streams, but at the breeding season, after the ice melts in the spring, this fish departs to fresh water. Extent and pecuniary value of the fishing. The above mentioned internatio- nal bulletins give the following statements of the fish of all kinds caught in the White Sea. Year Amount in kg. \'alue in German marks. 1909 3,570,272 1,530,419 1910 9,872,208 3,134,342 Marine mammals may be dealt with in connection with the fishing. Sealing. Much sealing is carried on by the coast population round the WTiite Sea. The ringed seal (Phoca fcctida) is the chief quarry, and in the eastern parts also the Greenland seal (Phoca grccnlandica) and the bearded seal (Erignathus harbatus). The Greenland seal is a migrant, which in the autumn leaves the Arctic Ocean in large schools and comes to the mouth and eastern coast of the W^hite Sea, in order to pass the winter there and to breed; in March or April it returns to the Arctic Ocean with the drift ice in great herds, or goes further westwards along the Murman Coast. The mouth of the Ponoi is a good hunting ground, but numbers of seals are killed all along the Ter Coast, from Sviatoinos to the mouth of the Varzuga, as well as in the Gulfs of Dvina and Onega. In the inner parts of the White vSea the ringed seal are the chief quarry, though bearded seal are also killed. According to information given, a total of 639 seals were killed between 1903 and 1911 at Kouta, Knjasa and Mustalahti, or an average of 71 each year. They are sometimes hunted with firearms, usually old military rifles, and sometimes with nets; a good many seals and cubs are also killed with clubs. Only the blubber and skins of the seals killed is utilised. The following statistics from the parts of the White Sea nearest to Finland 218 A'. 71/. Levavder, Fish and Fisliiny. the districts of Keni and Onega, for the >ears 1900—1904, are quoted from a table compiled by Prof. Knipovitsch; Number of sealers Seals killed | Total value of the quarry in roubles Year District District of of Kem Onega District of Kem District of Onega 1900 ; 114 104 2,798 942 7,590 1901 108 125 1,927 1 1,185 8,864 1902 264 105 3,315 ' 973 10,882 1903 100 104 1,325 898 6,430 1904 194 121 425 807 9,332 B. The Inland Waters. The fish in the inland waters. The fish in the inland waters of East Carelia and Kola Lapmark are much the same as those in about the same latitude on the I'innish side of the frontier. Some of the migrators- fish from the White Sea which come up the rivers debouching in that sea, are distinguished as geographical varieties from the corresponding species in the Baltic (Gulf of Finland and Gulf of Bothnia), such as the White Sea smelt (Osrnerus eperla- iius V. dvinensis) and the river lamprey (Lampetra fhiviaiilis v. japonica) in the Uikujoki. Only on the outskirts of the territory do there appear fish pecu- liar to Russia, such as the nelma, a northern rpecies of vendace (Stenodus leu- cichthys nelma) in the river Onega, and the sterlett (Acipenser ruthenus) in the Dvina. As elsewhere in Fennoscandia, the various species of the salmon family which breed in the autumn, are comparatively numerous among the fresh wa- ter fish. The migratory fish named above, the sea salmon »sjomga» (Sahio sa- lar) and the grey salmon »kumsha» (Salmo trutta) mount all the rivers which flow into the White Sea (the Ponoi, Varzuga, Umba, Kem, etc.) The salmon which occurs in Lake Ladoga is held to be a shut in (relict) form of sea sal- mon (Salmo salar v. relicta). The »big salmon» of lakes Tuoppajarvi, Paajar\-i and Ala-Kuittijiirvi are possibly also »relict» sea salmon which have been cut off from the sea. The fish of the salmon tribe which is most widely distributed in the lakes is the lake trout (Salmo trutta lacustris) found in Ladoga, Onega, A'oijiirvi, Ohtajarvi and Pistojar\n, as well as various other lakes. The river trout (Salmo trutta jario) is found in rivers and the smaller lakes of the tundras FENNIA 42 No. 3. 219 The char (Sahno alpinus v. salvclinus) occurs in the hikes of the Kouta water system, Paanajarvi, Kuittijiirvi, Ivadoga and Onega and their neighbourhood, Piiljarvi, Seesjar\'i and Johiiajiirv-i. The grayling (Thymallus ihymallus) is common in running water, especially in the Kem and Tchirkkemi ri\-ers. The vendace family is distributed over all the rivers and lakes, the common ven- dace (Coregonus lavaretitsj being the most usual. Lakes Ladoga and Onega also contain a number of other species, such as the valamka (Coregonus Wide- greni), the Svir vendace (Coregonus haeri), etc. The bleak (Coregonus albula) and the small lake smelt (Osmerns eperlanus v. spirinchits) are found as far north as White Sea Carelia. The pike (Esox lucius) occurs e\-en in the lakes of Lapland, as well as the perch (Perca fluviatilis) and the burbot (Lota lota); the: roach (Leuciscus ruti- lisj and ide (Leuciscus idus) are also common. The dace (LeuciScus grislagine) lives in the Kem river and various other waters; the bream (Abramis hrama) and pike-perch (Lucioperca sandra) begin to appear south of that river, but are only of importance in Ladoga and Onega and elsewhere in southern Olon- ets Carelia. The eel (Angnilla vulgaris), the river lamprey (Lampetra fluviatilis) a.n6 occasionalh- the sea sturgeon (Acipenser sturio) as well as the salmon (?), mount the Neva to Lake Ladoga. Species peculiar to the south east, which probably came to this country during the Ancylus period from the Aral-Caspian region, are found, many of them in abundance, in the shallows of south Ladoga, the rivers which fall into it (the Olhov and Sjas) and to some extent also in the vSvir and Neva. These include the chub, (Leuciscus cephahis), the pelecus (Pelecus cultratus), the aspius (Aspius rapax), and the abramis (Abramis vimba and Abramis ballerus). The pike-perch, although more widely distributed, must be assigned to the same group. A few sheat-fish (Silurius glanis) are found in these regions as well as in the Suojarvi water system, which falls into lake Onega. The tench (Tinea inca) is of very local distribution; the most northerly place where it is found is said to be Kelljar\'i, near the village of Tiudie. The sterlett (Acipenser ruthcnus) is a later arrival found in the basin of I^adoga and Onega. The fisheries. Owing to the numerous large lakes, fishing is of great im- portance to the economy of the inhabitants, especiall}- as agriculture and cattle breeding stand so low. As is natural, fishing is mostly carried on for household needs, and, according to the place and season, the chief catches are pike, bleak, vendace, perch, roach, ide, bream, burbot, smelt, graA'ling, salmon and grey salmon. Fish is a very important article of food all the year round. 220 K. M. Levander, Fish and Fi.sliing. vSonie fresh water fish, especially vendace, salmon, grey salmon, bleak, pike and charr, are also sold commercially. They are conv^eyed fresh, salted, dried (pike) or in the winter, frozen. The chief places of sale are Archangel, and lor the Olonets fish, Petrosavodsk and Petrograd. A good deal of fish is exported from Suma. In the year 1908, 10,766 kg. of fresh fish (value, 7,536 Finnish marks) and 1,569 kg. of salt fish (value 1,188 Finnish marks) were exi)orted to Finland via »Salmis. Finnish travellers say that fish are very abundant in tlie lakes and rivers on the other side of the frontier. Thus RosBERG, in his work on the distribu- tion of fish in Russian Carelia (1891), says that there is greater abundance of fish than in the corresponding latitudes of Finland. »Fishing is in East Carelia» writes one author (Karjalan kirja III page 73) »a very remunerative occupa- tion, for the lakes are exceptionally full of fish, in spite of the thoroughly unscientific way in which fishing is carried on, especially at the breeding sea- son. The only pity is that too nuich fish is always taken, so that the surplus cannot be sold and nuist be left unsalted or, which is still worse, be allowed to rot after salting. » This extract in itself shows that the fisher^' leaves much to be desired from the point of view of wise economy. The great abundance of fish in extensive regions especially of White Sea Carelia is explicable by the thinness of the population. The injurious methods of fishing have not been able to do as much harm here as in more thickly populated districts. RosbekG has already remarked that small or moderate sized lakes on which a large village is situated are generally comparatively poor in fish. Fa'Cu in lakes so large as Onega, the proceeds from vendace and other fish- ing seem to have considerably declined. Pushkarev calculates (1913) that the vendace fishing has declined all over this lake during the present century, in places by as much as one third, that in the southern parts the bleak fishing has almost come to a standstill, and that salmon netting, which used to fur- nish the population with about 30,000 roubles additional income ever\' autumn has almost been abandoned on the west coast, and has at other places dimi- nished by half; the char fishing in Jalguba has also perceptibh' declined. The same Russian fishery official states that between the years 1895 and 1900 about 1,280,000 kg. of fish came annually into connnerce from Lake Onega, but in 1912 only 800,000 kg. The monetary value used to bfe as much as 200,000 roubles, but in 1912, in spite of a considerable rise in prices, it was only 146,000 roubles. (1) i}) It may be mentioned for the sake of comparision that the amount of sh exported in 1913 from the Finnish part of Lake Ladoga to Petrograd, by FKXXIA 42 Xo. 3. 221 The case seems to be the same in other waters where fishing is actively carried on. Jakobson (1911) states, for example, that at the beginning of this century the Paanajiirvi fishermen on the river Kem took 19,200 kg. of salmon (1,280 kg. per boat) annually, that in 1906 they took 1 1,200 Kg., in 1908 5,600 kg., and in 1910 only 3,600 kg. (240 kg. per boat) He says that old people talk of the times when the catch was as much as 2,400 kg. (150 poods) per boat. Even, therefore, if the fish may still be considered \-ery abundant in the waters of thinly populated areas, the general course of things yet shows, as suggested particularly by the decline in the fishing industry of Lake Onega, that the time has come to conduct the fisheries on a more scientifie system than has hitherto been adopted. There is great encouragement for such action in the great possibilities of increasing the profit from fishing afforded by the wealth of lakes in Olonets and elsewhere in East Carelia. It was only during the last decade that the Russian fishery officials began to pay much attention to the study of fishiilg and to work for the improve- ment of this industry in East Carelia. It has been proposed that a large fish- breeding establishment should be started at Petrosavodsk for the preser\-ation and increase of the valuable species found in Lake Onega and the surrounding waters. The originator of the proposal thought the establishment ought to be able to receive each year twenty five million grains of spawn, namely twenty million vendace eggs, four million salmon and trout, and one million char. A salmon breeding establishment was to be started on the Neva. There have also been proposals for securing a sufficient stock of fish in waters which have been impoverished by the presence of predatory species, but owing to the war none of these proposals have been carried out. K. M. Levander. 4 Game and Hunting. Although there has been no preservation of game in East Carelia and no organisation of the hunting, yet, owing to the paucity of population, game is still so abundant that the people could until recently obtain a considerable addition to their incomes from trapping. According to the official statistics, there were in 1904 about 800 trappers in the province of Kem, and in the vears 1898—1909 an average of about 4.300 in rail, water or road, came to 352,000 kg., equivalent at the then prices to a -value of about 520,000 marks. 222 -^'- -^^- Levander. Gaiiu- and Hunting. the provinces of Olonets, Petrosavodsk and Povenets. but these fi.t^ures are probably much too low. L- BlagovESTCHEnski (1911) who des- cribes the conditions of hunting in the government of Olonets, conjectures that from one twelfth to one tenth of the whole population hunts as a subsidiary occu])ation. In order to reduce the immoderate slaughter of useful game, the Game Law of 1892 forbade the use of the gin. Nevertheless, this destructive kind of trap is still used in the extensive wilds where the observance of the law is not en- forced; seafowl, ducks, geese and swans are also trapped during the spring migrations, etc. Some limitation of the all too extensive pursuit of game is also contemplated by the provision that at least in the government of Olonets hunting rights may only be granted on the payment of a yearly fee of one or two roubles. The fee for elk hunting is ten roubles per year, or three roubles a time. The income from this tax in the said government is about 35,000 roub- les yearly. The usual game are, among mammals the hare, wild reindeer and elk. and among birds the hazel hen, ptarmigan, black-cock, capercailzie, duck, to some extent also geese and swans, and in the southern parts also partridges, wood- cock and snipe. The chief quarry are the hazel-hen, hare and capercailzie. The wild reindeer, already extinct in Finland, is also disappearing on the other side of the frontier. PUk are also beginning to be scarce. Furred animals, particularly the squirrel, are also of great importance to the professional hunter in Carelia, as will be seen from the tables. The nume- rous beasts of prey which are hunted are the bear, wolf, fox, marten, lynx, weasel, otter and wolverine, in the province of K em also the arctic fox, and in Olonets the mink, polecat and badger. The frequency of the larger beasts of prey, the wolf and bear, even in the present century, is significant. They have, however, always been energetically persecuted, and especially so during recent decades, since old military rifles have found their way over the country side. In order to show the proceeds of the hunting, we quote here some statis- tics which we have gathered from the available sources. 1. Province of Kem, 1904. Bear 26 Wolves Wolverine 6 I-^ox 95 Marten 170 FENNIA 42 No. 3. 223 Arctic fox 45 Weasel 252 Squirrel 5,360 Other mammals 1 42 Hazel-hen 27,090 brace Ptarmigan 4,310 » Capercailzie 7,328 » Other forest and water iowl 8,120 » Total furred animals, 6,086, calculated to be worth 2,956 roubles. Total birds, 46,848 brace, calculated to be worth 7,163 roubles. Total value of the quarr}^ 10,119 roubles. Number of hunters, 885. Squirrels cost ten kopeks each on the spot, and a brace of ptarmigan an a\-erage of twenty-six kopeks. 2. The Russian writer mentioned above says that the average numbers killed per 3-ear in the first eight years of the present centur>' in the govern- ment of Olonets were as follows; Bear 249, wolves 115, fox 534, marten 914, hare 17,008, squirrel 105,674, a total of 124,494 animals, at a value of 30,667 roubles; of birds, hazel-hen, 67,385 brace, ptarmigan 8,488, other birds 29,414, a total of 105,286 brace at a value of 39,200 roubles. The average total value of the quarr>' amounted to 69,867 roubles. The average number of hunters in the years 1898-1909 was 10,000, 4,000 of them in the provinces of Olonets, Petrosavodsk and Povenets. 3. Statistics of the Government of Olonets, 1912. , Number Value in roubles Elk 42 358 Hare 20.953 3,351 Squirrel 52.106 10,600 Bear 139 3.215 Wolf 149 1,012 Wolverine 10 120 Lynx 77 1,274 Fox 786 9,739 Marten 547 5,879 Polecat 337 754 Weasel 1,111 2,325 224 A'. M. Leramiey, tianu- and Hunting. Otter 36 244 Miitk 217 361 Badger 10 25 Caper-cailzie 9,916 5,213 Black-Kanie 15,300 6,749 Hazel-hen . 78,527 1 6,884 Ptarmigan " 8.719 1 ,395 Partridge 3,162 640 Duck 7,998 1,408 Goose 432 401 Swan 64 38 Loon 40 16 Snipe 300 38 Sundry 320 32 Total of furred animals, 76,520, worth according to local prices 39,257 roubles. Total birds 124,778 (62,389 brace) worth according to the local pri- ces 32.814 roubles. The following were the prices on the spot in 1912; ptarmigan 15 — 20 ko- peks, duck 18 — 20 kop., partridge 21—23 kop., black-cock 40 — 50 kop., ca- percailzie 45 — 65 kop., hare 13—17 kop., squirrel skins 18 — 23 kop., weasel skins 1. 40 — 2. 30 roubles, wolf skin 5 — 8 roubles, otter skin 5. 60, elk skin 8 roubles, marten skin 9—13 roubles, fox 11 — 13, wolverine 12, lynx 12. 45 — 16.90, and bear skin 18—25 roubles. The trade in fore^ game is of considerable dimensions. Sunku is the most important centre of the fur-trade and the trade in forest game in general; ninnerous dealers from distant parts come to its market. Squirrel skins are mostly bought in Kargopol, where a large number of persons are employed in curing them. Otherwise the produce mostly makes its way to Petrograd. The stock of game has considerably diminished owing to the absence of any protection, and the general unscientific methods. Olonets is obviously progressing in the same direction as Finnish Carelia, where himting is no longer pursued as a livelihood, and in Kem Carelia, where the complaint has long been heard that owing to the excessive hunting the game has begun to diminish. It hiuiting is allowed as an unrestricted means of livelihood, it always leads to a diminution of the stock of game, and the destruction of the more valuable species. Generally speaking, the causes of a diminution of game are nearly always manifold, and vary in different countries, but thev need not. as manv believe. FENNIA 42 No. 3. 225 always be looked for in »civilisation». This is proved by the large stock of valuable game in countries as thickly populated as Germany and Austria (thirty million kilogrammes are killed annually). Neither is the presence of large numbers of beasts of prey the only cause, for about 1 860, when there were certainly no less beasts of prey, large and small, in Olonets than there are now, about a million brace of birds and 200,000 — 300,000 squirrel and other skins were sent to the Sunku market from the surrounding governments (according to Rybnikoff). Moreover Finland, which must now be considered as really poor in forest game, is almost devoid of all the larger beasts of prey. The hunting must be organised and supervised. Unless the enlightened sec- tions of the population and the government realise that the preservation and reasonable protection of useful game is a matter of public and of economic importance, there is a danger that this inherited wealth of natural resources will not only yield little interest, but will decline until in time it becomes quite insignificant. K. M. LevandER. 5. Trade and Industry. Provinces of Olonets, Petrosavodsk and Povenets in the Government of Olonets. Since very ancient times trade has been one of the most important sour- ces of livelihood for the inhabitants of the government of Olonets. Its posi- tion on the isthmus between the White Sea and Ladoga and Onega have made it the natural channel of traffic between the sea coast and the more thick- ly populated regions to. the south. It was the transit trade, together with the abundance of forest game and fish, which led to the first settlements here, and it has also more recently done much to assist the increase of population and the possibilities of livelihood. The pogost (1) of Olonets is mentioned as early as 1 137 among the Novgo- rodian territories which took a notable part in the Hansa commerce of those days. The old Novgorodian line of commerce went along the river Volkhov to Ivadoga, thence to Lake Onega and on to the White Sea. The pogost of Sunku on the north-west shore of Lake Onega existed in the thirteenth century, and the neighbouring pogost of Tulvoja is also mentioned. The village of Suoja on the west shore of Lake Onega is given as the centre of traffic for these pog- (^) The pogost is an ancient rural taxation district in Russia. 15 226 O. Lonnroth, Trade and Industry. osts, and the population of the village is said to live chiefly by fishing and the fish trade. The village of Povenets is first mentioned in 1680, in the time of Ivan the Terrible. Modern traffic between the provinces of Olonets, Petrosavodsk and Poven- ets and the cities of Petrograd, Novgorod, Rybinsk, Jaroslav, Kostroma, Vologda and other trade centres further south, makes most use of the water- ways, the rivers and canals. The excellent traffic channel from Petrograd up the Neva to Noteborg continues along I,adoga to the mouth of the Svir and then up that river to lyake Onega. The great canals of Alexander II., Peter the Great, Maria Feodorovna, Catherine II., Alexander III. and the Svir, south of Ladoga, do much to facilitate traffic, especially for barges. The much used waterway of the Olkhov, flows from Lake Ilmen and the neigh- bourhood of Novgorod and also debouches in Lake Ladoga. The so-called Tilivin waterway also flows into Lake Ladoga, by the Pasha river. From Ry- binsk, Jaroslav and Kostroma the traffic makes its way up the Sheksna, a tributary of the Volga, to Bielozersk on Lake Bielozero, thence by the Bielo- zersk canal to the river Kovsha, which again is united bj^ the Maria canal with the river Vytegra, which runs into Lake Onega. The traffic between the Vytegra and the Syir goes both along the southern part of Lake Onega and (mainly) by the Onega canal, which unites the mouth of the Vytegra with the Svir at Vosnesenja market. The old lines of transport cross Lake Onega north- wards; from the Svir to the tow n of Petrosavodsk, to the mouth of the Vodla- joki, to the port of Kuzeranta, to Sunku market and to the town of Povenets, whence an old high road leads to the little market town of Suma on the White Sea. The most important centres of commerce are now Vosnesenia wharf, where the Svir leaves Lake Onega, and the town of Petrosavodsk. Very ex- tensive transshipment takes place at Vosnesenia, which place has also be- come a centre for the storage of the grain sent to these regions by the whole- sale dealers of Rybinsk, Kostroma, etc. Petrosavodsk (Fig. 53) is the largest trade centre in the province. During the summer there is lively steamboat traffic in the town. Boats run three times a week on the line between Petro- grad and Petrosavodsk, and regular communication has also been established with Vosnesenia, Povenets andPudosh. There has been a cannon and ammuni- tion factor}^ in the town ever since the eighteenth century. The merchants of Petrosavodsk import grain, groceries, agricultural produce, beverages and medical requisites, and export wood produce, fish, forest game, iron goods, etc. In 1913 Petrosavodsk was connected with Petrograd by railway, and in 1915—16 this railroad was extended up to the Murman Coast. The town of FBNNIA 42 No. 3. 227 Povenets (Fig. 54) lies on a northern arm of I^ake Onega, and deserves mention as serving the transit trade. Fish, wood produce, etc. are sent from the north via this town to Petrograd and other centres of consmnption, while grain and groceries are transported in the contrary direction. Olonets, the third town of East Carelia, situated at the confluence of the Olonka and Magri rivers, has sunk into insignificance as a place of traffic. Its brightest period was in the seventeenth century, when its citizens made trading expeditions even as far as Stockholm. Nowadays the town is scarcely distinguishable from the sur- rounding villages. It is difficult to obtain reliable, and especially comparable and useful figures of the trade and industry of the territory-. The Russian statistical publications and the reports of the zemstvos remark on the disinclination of the various merchants, shipping agents and factors- owners to give complete information about their businesses. The statistical material is therefore varied and uneven. While the figures for some districts are fairly complete, they may be entirely wanting for a neighbouring area, so that we must here be content with general assumptions. The following description is based on the publications of the Russian Ministry of Finance, the reports of the zemstvos and special statistical yearbooks, and makes an attempt to group the infor- mation according to the different branches of trade and industry. Grain. As shown in the chapter on that subject, agriculture is still at a primitive stage, and insufficient to feed the population from one harvest to another. The country is therefore obliged to rely on imported grain, the ob- taining and transport of which has become one of the most important cares of the population. Not only individual merchants but also representatives of the government and of the zemstvos are engaged in securing grain. The provinces, towns, communes, and in places even the villages have their own food funds for this purpose. The zemstvo of the province of Povenets is men- tioned as being especially active, and obtains grain also for the communes further north. The difficulties of transport, and the responsibility, are best seen when one remembers that 89 ^/q of the population of Povenets has no road practicable for wheeled traffic, while 45 ^/q has not even paths. The grain (rye, wheat and oats) comes from the south, mostly during the summer, by the waterways from Jaroslav, Vologda and Rybinsk, some also from the neighbourhood of Moscow and Riazan, Kama, Viatka and Saratov. Some corn is transported by high road in the winter, some of it also from Fin- land. Grain for the whole year is bought at the end of July and beginning of August, and is therefore then a year old. The transport between Rybinsk and Vosnesenia takes 18—30 days, according to the weather, that between 228 O. Lonnroth, Trade and Industry. Vosnesenia and Povenets 2 — 3 days. The transport from Vosnesenia down the Svir to the region of Lodenoye polie and the mouth of the Svir takes as much as a fortnight, as the barges are collected into groups of twenty or thirty and gradually moved on. The figures of the annual grain import are incomplete. According to the information of the Russian Finance Ministry, a total of 7,690,400 kg. of grain was imported in 1900 to the town of Petrosavodsk, Kontupohja, Munjarvi, Suurlahti, Tulvoja and Suoju communes in the province of Petrosavodsk, and to the communes of Mantyselka and Sunku in the province of Povenets. This included 5,077,800 kg. rye flour 737,100 » rye •819,000 » wheat flour 491,400 » wheat 327,600 » oats, and V 237,500 » other grain. With regard to the other communes in the province of Povenets, it can onl}' be said that in 1900 grain was imported to a value of 270,000 roubles, which at the prices then prevailing represented about three million kilo- grammes. Part of this grain was sent on northward to the communes in the province of Kem in the government of Archangel. No details are available about the importation of grain into the province of Olonets. It is, however, stated that in the year 1900 a total of 47,010,600 kg. of grain was transported to the wharfs on the two sides of the Svir, and that this included 34,889,400 kg. rye flour. 6.060,600 2,293,200 1,310,400 2,129,400 327,600 rye, wheat flour, wheat, oats, and other grain. It is obvious that the greater part of this large quantity of grain shipped to places on the Svir was transit goods on its way to the conmiunes in the pro- vince of Olonets, the southern parts of the province of Petrosavodsk, and to some places in the provinces of Lodenoyepolie and New Ladoga. It is specially FENNIA 42 No. 3. 229 mentioned that about 4,914,000 kg. out of the above was intended for the coast of lyadoga, and partly for Finland. The grain for Finland is clearly part of the consignments which pass every ^-ear through the Finnish custom sta- tions at Virtelii, Kiisnaselka, Kokkoniemi and Leppaniemi. Finland imported via these stations 68,615 kg. in 1912, 36,704 kg. in 1913, 257,940 kg. in 1914 and 212,715 kg. in 1915. It may further be remarked that the conmiunes of Repola, Rukajarvi and Paadene in the north of the province of Povenets draw some of their grain from Finland. Thus considerable quantities of rye, barley, pot barley, rice and wheat are imported to these communes from Finland, partly via Lieksa and partl}^ via Kuhmo. Some of this is transit goods from Petrograd. Grain ordered by the above mentioned zemstvos in the province of Povenets is delivered in the winter via Lieksa and Repola. The quantities of flour transported by this route were 81,200 kg. in 1902, 265,300 kg. in 1903, 29,400 kg. in 1904, 353,800 kg. in 1905 ,206,300 kg. in 1906 and 147,400 kg in 1908. The fish trade has a long tradition in East Carelia even though it is no longer so great as it used to be. Fish still takes the second place in the export trade, both in quantity and in value; the first place is taken by forest and timber produce. Ven,^ large quantities of fish are caaght in the government of Olonets, though much less than on the Murman and the White Sea Coasts, whence the fishmongers import supplies for sale in the southern centres of consumption. Sea fish are mostly sold at the market town of Simia at the mouth of the Sumajoki on the coast of the Gulf of Onega. An old post road, as stated above, goes from here southwards to the town of Povenets. There is lively goods traffic along this road, especially in the autumn and winter. The most indus- trious carters and merchants are the inhabitants of Tulvoja, Suurlahti, Te- penitsa and Suoju communes in the province of Petrosavodsk. They make their expeditions to the White Sea coast in November and January. People from other regions also take part in these carting expeditions. It is calculated that an average of 1 ,820,000 kg. of sea fish, 575,000 kg. of it from the town of Suma, is annualh' transported in 5,000 loads, only to the town of Povenets and the market places in its neighbourhood. From thence the fish is distri- buted through middlemen to the various places of consumption, and goes even as far as Petrograd. This fish from the sea coast is even carted over still longer distances. It is reported that in the winter frozen, dried or salted sea fish is conveyed direct even as far as Petrograd. It is estimated (by Kryi- lov) that the total quantity of fish thus annually transported from the sea 230 O. Lonnroih. Trade and Industry. coast to centres further south amounts to more than fifteen million kilo- grammes, and that the number of horses used is about 7,000, the same horse making as many as five journeys there and back. Manufactured goods and groceries, grain, flax, hemp, rope, sail-cloth, etc. are conveyed on the return journey. For further information concerning the fish trade, see the chapter on the fisheries, where particulars of the prices and quantities are given. The trade in cray-fish from Olonets Carelia has recently begun to be orga- nished. The northerly communes on Ivake Onega are the main centres of this trade. Since the year 1905 cray-fish have regularl}^ been sent to Petrograd from the commune of Suurlahti. Hundreds of merchants take part in this trade, and despatch an average of 68,000 baskets a year (each containing 100 cray-fish) to the capital. The trade in forest game, like that in fish, has from ancient times been an important source of income for the government of Olonets, especially for the inhabitants of the province of Povenets. Particulars thereof have already been given in a previous chapter. The timber indttstry and trade in xvooden goods. It might have been thought that the extensive forests of the country, the cheapness of labour, the proxi- mity to such a centre of consumption and such a place of export as Petrograd and the water communications with the Gulf of Finland and the Arctic Ocean would have produced an important wood industry'. This is, however, not the case. This industry is still at a primitive stage, its methods are antiquated and its management has no wide views. Industry has concentrated mainlj- on the mineral deposits of the countr}- and on mining, and the sawing industry' has remained on a lower level. Since mining, and especiallj^ the iron industry- fell into decay, as will be described later, the sawing industry-, small though it still is, has taken a remarkable impetus, and come to hold the first place in the mechanical industry of the countrs*. There were in this territory six sawmills in the year 1908, apart from smal- ler sawmills for household requirements; four of these were in the province of Petrosavodsk and two in Povenets. The sawmills in the province of Petro- savodsk were as follows; Messrs. Gronioff and company, at the village of Solomanni in the commune of Suoju. Number of hands, 72. Annual output 270,500 boards and planks. Working expenses 191,500 roubles, of which wages took 16,000 roubles. Messrs. A. P. Belaj'eff and company, also in the commune of vSuoju. Number of hands 1 17, wages 24,436 roubles. \'ahie of the annual output 148,922 roubles,; FENNIA 42 No. 3. 231 Messrs. E. H. Brandt and company, at the village of Lisma in the com- mune of Kontupohja. Number of hands 100. Annual output 373,800 boards and planks. Working expenses 210,953 roubles of which 14,451 went in wages to the sawyers. Messrs. S. Parishky, at Petrosavodsk. Number of hands 18. Value of the annual output, 4,750 roubles. The following were the sawmills in the pro\-ince of Povenets in the year 1908; Kumsinski's, at the village of Lrunpusa near the town of Povenets in the commune of Sunku. Number of sawyers 24. Annual output 126,048 boards and planks, worth 58,500 roubles. Wages of the sawyers only 4,559 roubles. Unitski's (successors to the late P. Belayeff and company), in the com- mune of Sunku. Number of hands 61. Annual output 609,580 boards and planks, worth 138,500 roubles. Wages 12,770 roubles. There is no doubt that there is a bright future before the sawing industry of Olonets Carelia. It only needs for its development more orderly conditions, the improvement of the means of transport, especially the timber floating channels, and more modern methods, which should especially keep in view the need of a variety of products for the foreign market. There is also a future before the manufacture of chemical pulp. Up to the present (1908) there is only one chemical pulp factor}^ in Olonets Carelia, in the province of Olonets. Its annual otitput amounted to 35,750 roubles, and it employed 43 hands. Although the wood industry is so small, the timber trade has been and still is of great importance to the economic life of Olonets Carelia. As grain is first among the imports, so is timber first among the exports. The chief articles of sale are half worked goods, hewn in the forest itself, such as logs, props, pulp wood and fuel, while the products of the wood industry, such as sawn timber and chemical pulp still take a secondary" place. As mentioned in the chapter on forests and forestry, the timber from both Petrosavodsk and Olonets is almost exclusively sent to Petrograd. The pro- vince of Povenets, on the other hand, may be divided into three districts from the point of view of timber export. The smallest district, that in the north- west, transports and sells its timber to* Finland; a somewhat larger district to the south sends its timber produce to Lake Onega, while the third and lar- gest district, in the north, sends it to the White Sea coast, where part of it is sawn into planks for foreign export, in the sawmills of Sorokka and Kem, while part is shipped abroad direct as logs and spars. The Russian Ministry of Finance states that it is unable to furnish com- 232 O. Lonnroth, Trade and Industry. jjlete figures of the export of timber from the provinces in Olonets Carelia. It gives the following particulars, with a caution that the figures are lower than the facts. The exports for the year 1900 were as follows; From the eastern part of the province of Povenets, which leads to Lake Onega (the town of Povenets, and the communes of Danilov, Petrovsko-Jam, and Rimskaja), 32,800 tons of timber produce (i). From the comnmnes of IMiintyselka and Sunku in the province of Poven- ets, and the north-east of the j)rovince of Petrosavodsk (town of Petrosavodsk and the communes of Suurlahti, Kontupohja, Munjarvi, Tulvoja and Suoju), 63,900 tons, about one third each of sawn timber, logs, and fuel, worth toge- ther 100,000 roubles; From the rest of Petrosavodsk (communes of Saamajiirvi, Pyhajarvi, Ladva, Soutjarvi and Ostretchino), 130,000 tons of timber produce; From the communes of Tulemajarv'i, Vieljarv'i, Videle, Kotkatjar\-i, Rii- puschkala and Njekkula in the province of Olonets and from the town of Olonets, 16,400 tons, almost entirely fuel. From an area comprising the communes of Vaasheni and Matysova in the province of Olonets, the town of lyodenoyepolie and eight communes in the province of Lodenoyepolie and three communes in the province of New Ladoga, 745,000 tons. Only about 122,000 tons of this is produced in the dis- trict, the rest being transit goods, mostly from the provinces of Kargopol Pudosh and \^ytegra, from Ojatti and from round the sources of the P ash ajoki. It is not possible to state what quantity of timber goods is exported from the north and north-west of Povenets to the White Sea coast and to Fin- land. As there is no customs station on the frontier between Finland and the province of Povenets, Finnish statistics do not give any figures of the quanti- ties of timber which are brought to Kotka from the Russian side down the Lieksajoki. If timber is thus exported from Povenets to Finland it is also imported from Finland to Petrosavodsk and Olonets. This export from Finland includes some small quantities of planks, but chiefly consists of raw material bought by the Russian timber merchants on the Torasjoki, lake Suojarvi, and other timber-floating channels which lead from Finland to the Suojunjoki waterway. According to information furnished by the Finnish customs office, the fol- lowing quantities of timber were exported from Finland via the Virtela and Leppaniemi customs stations; 1912, 390 cubic metres, at a value of 14,820 marks. 1913, 53,706 cubic metres, value 912,902 marks, 1914, 65,338 cubic (•) The original statement is in poods. 1 pood = O.oiess metric tons. Fig. 53. Town of Petrosavodsk. Photo A. O. Kihbiian. Fio:. 54. Town of Povenets. Photo W. Ramsay. FKNNIA 42 No. 3. 233 metres, value 1,633,557 marks, and 1915, 36,627 cubic metres, value 455,464 marks. The figures of the quantities of timber taken from the forests also help to give an idea of the timber trade of Kast Carelia. As stated in the chapter on forestry, the following quantities of timber were taken from the forests belonging to the state, private owners and the peasant communities respec- tivelv in the vears 1904 — 08; Timber taken from the forests of Olonets, Petrosavodsk and Povenets in the years 1904 — igo8. Province of Province of Province of Olonets Petrosavodsk Povenets lOtcll '+-I ^ fc ■ <=> S '-' ° S3 Year (fl ^ E CO tn ,0 a; ^ tf. u C 1 2i a ^ ■*-" T! oJ il *^ -n IH 4-> -S w=l > » = >> 625,000 » » According to these figures, the government of Olonets would supply the Petrograd market with half the whole supply of fuel transported by water on the Neva. The extent to which the supplies of timber imported into Petrograd go thence to foreign markets cannot be shown in figures. It is, however, probable that nearly a third of the wood exported abroad from Petrograd comes from the government of Olonets. According to the information av ailable, the fol- lowing quantities of timber were in 1907 noted as intended for export abroad. Saw logs 29,386 metric tons. Poles 149,615 » » Beams 1 42,440 » » Aspen wood for the match trade 33,972 » » i'lanks and boards 183,849 » » Spars 3,686 » •> Fuel 14,513 Total 557,461 metric tons. (1) A very hi gh figure, explained by the fact that during this year the peasants were granted the right of selling timber from the forest belonging to the communities, which led them to try and sell fuel in Petrograd, FKNNIA 42 No. 3. 235 Mining. As stated more fully in the chapter on useful ores and other mine- rals, there are various ores and minerals in the province of Olonets, and at- tempts were made long ago to use them in regular mining and industry. Efforts have been mainly directed to the utilisation of the iron ore found in the region both in the form of rock deposits and as bog ore in numerous lakes and bogs. Although the supplies are large, especially of bog ore (more than 1 1,500,000 tons in Uikujiirvi for example) its exploitation has gradually declined, as, owing to the poor means of communication, the working did rot pay. This is shown by the following figures; Quarrying and Collection of Iron Ore in the Government of Olonets in the Years i8gy — igo6. Year Number of quarries i i Number of 1 lakes for collecting bog-ore Metric tons of ore obtained Number of workers 1897 13 17 24,286 506 1898 ! 17 36 41 103 836 1899 1 11 33 28,370 736 1900 23 154 25,524 1,312 1901 12 21 20,763 296 1902 ■ 9 16 15,151 560 1903 ; — 12 9 040 219 1904 — 12 5,639 175 1905 — 10 3793 100 1906 ' 1 5 4,512 80 At first the ore was smelted in the state furnaces, of which the best known are at Kentjarvi in the commune of Munjar^-i, \"alasmo on the Sununjcli in the commune of Porajarvi and the St. Anne iron works at Suojarv'i on the Finnish side. Later on a number of private smelting works were established, so that there were eight at work in the year 1899. After 1901 they began to restrict their working, chiefly because it did not pay. The mines are now un- der water, and the expensive buildings have been allowed to fall into decay. Owing to the lack of railways and other means of communication, the mining industry' here cannot compete with that of the Urals and other regions. Some of the Olonets smelting works seem to have resumed work during the war. 236 O. Lonnroth, Trade and Indixstry. The output of the smelting works in Olonets Carelia is shown from the following figures; Smelting Furnaces in the Government of Olonets in the years i8g8 — igo8. Year Number of smelting furnaces Number of workers Ore 1 Iron srnelted , obtained Metric tons Value of the product in roubles 1898 6 366 26.799 9,569 241,726 1899 8 376 49,413 11,214 273.409 1900 8 630 35.610 13,765 620797 1901 5 ? 22 584 9,661 292,680 1902 4 202 20,418 7,905 274,078 1903 4 139 11.956 4,181 91.279 1904 3 355 11,967 10,882 374.174 1905 3 304 23,060 10,847 548,271 1906 2 242 6 291 2,569 80,264 1907 2 222 ? ? 114 378 1908 2 226 ? ? 550.275 The presence of iron ore led also to the rise of an actual iron industry. A number of iron works and factories were established here, the first of them in the eighteenth century. There were several on the shores of Lake Onega. But owing to poor organisation and defective means of communi- ation they gradually fell into decay. The works could not compete with those of other iron districts in Russia or with the Finnish iron industry. The only ones now at work are the state iron and ammunition factory at Petrosavodsk (the sro-called Alexandrov factory) and one or two private establishments. The following figures, for the years 1898—1908 are available to show the output and number of employees of the iron works. ^r _ Number Value of output, of hands. in roubles. 1898 979 887,908 1899 988 769.312 1900 899 661,432 1901 ? 572,024 1902 816 359,710 1903 928 325,022 1904 1,166 573,283 1905 1,410 723,928 1906 1,576 905,817 1907 1,181 850,629 1908 1,164 657,772 FENNIA 42 No. 3. 237 There have also been energetic efforts to make use of the copj^er deposits of Olonets Carelia, though with poor results. The only copper mines now at work are some small ones in the province of Povenets. In the year 1908 these employed 76 men, and the output amounted to 622.4 tons. One cannot help regretting the decay of the mining industry in Olonets Carelia. The inconffe therefrom might have formed an appreciable addition to the little budget of this country. In time a considerable body of skilled workers had grown up, especially as the trade descended from father to son. These workers have now been forced to seek a livelihood elsewhere, which has helped to increase emigration. Shiphiilding. The large expanses of open water, such as Lakes Ladoga and Onega, joined to the important carrying trade in the waterways, has pro- duced an established shipbuilding and repairing industry. It builds both sailing boats, the so-called »galjott» and »sainia>>, and barges for t?oods trans- port. The biggest shipyards and repairing shops are at Petrosavodsk (three) Vosnesenia (two) and V.aasheni on the Svir. We append a table showing the number of workplaces, number of employ- ees and value of the output, between the years 1902 and 1908 in the provin- ces of Povenets, Petrosavodsk ana Olonets. Factory Industry in Olonets, Petrosavodsk and Povenets in the years igo2— igo8. Year Number of work places Number of workers Value of the product, in roubles Olon. Petr. Ah H Petr. Pov. Total Olon. Petr. Pov. Total 1902 4i 12! 3: 19 195 1,254 122 1,571 229,480 1,145,535 220 625 1,595,640 1903 9 15 3 27 141 |1,406 114 1,661 63,341 1,063,421 249 414 1,376,176 1904 9 14 3 26 346,1,572 1 128 2 046 332 379 1,103,211 ^ 225,314 1,660,904 1905 5 13! 3 21' 305 1,769 ; 143 2 217 520 045 1,126 558 ' 216,776 1,863,379 1906 7 1.31 3 23 1 273 1,825 ' 147 2 245 91,774 1,307 944 213 590 1,613,308 1907 11 14 3 28 218 1,532 142 1,892 101.605 1,281612, 235,878 1,619,095 1908 7 15 2 24 297 1,660 75 2,032 551,856 1 1,231,942 225,000 2,008,798 1 Home industry. By the side of agriculture, forest woik, fishing and hunt- ing, the Olonets Carelians carry on \arious kinds of home industry. Their skill is in places ver}- great. Home industry is most active in the ])rovinces of Olonets and Petrosavodsk, while industrious craftsmen are less common in Po\cUfcls. In Olonets smithv work and the manufacture of vehicles is on 238 O. LunnyoUi. Trade and Industry. a very high level. Other home products are wood-work, straw plaits and hats, fur articles, textiles, pastry — such as »water rings» — etc. In the province of Petrosavodsk there are .skilful carpenters, joiners and turners. The occupa- tions carried on include carpentry, tar-, charcoal- and lime-burning, net mak- ing, and certain kinds of smithy-work. Grindstones and hones are made from the sandstone of the district. Millstones aie also made, and other stone goods. In Povenets the birch-bark work is the characteristic feature of the home industry\ Other handicrafts of this province are basket making, cooper- age, boat building, net making and smithy work. Guns are also made. The following figures are avilable as to the number of work-places, number of workers, and the amount of their earnings in the provinces of Olonets, Petrosavodsk and Povenets. Home Industry in the Provinces of Olonets, Petrosavodsk and Povenets in the years igo2 — igo8. . Year Number of work places Number of workers Value of the product, in roubles Olon. Petr. Pov. o o O Petr. Pov, 73 Olon. Petr. Pov. Total 1902 192 485 147 824 220 533 180 933 22,622 31.875 72,005 126,502 1903 200 1395 142 1 737 234 ! 489 i 153 \ 876 24,416 26,452 4,369' 55,237 1 1904 199 436 175 810 237 489 ; 200 ! 926 23,969 26,760 4,213 54,942 1905 201 , 651 163 1,015 251 • 723 I 187 1,161 29.342 31,984 6.354 67.680 1906 219 479 171 869 249 I 533 201 983 67,197 27,460 7,052 101,709 1907 188 453^ 175! 816 207 614 218 1,039 22,312 26,757 6,833 55,902! 1908 208 438 1 131 777 265 520 151 936 57,546 34,007 6,540 98,093 Commerce, markets and peddling. The general shop, where everything is sold that can find a purchaser, is tj'pical of the business enterprise of Olonets. The same shop buys and sells wooden goods, grain, fish and game, leather goods, iron ware, groceries and haberdashery. There is, however, a certain amount of specialisation noticeable in the grain and flour trade, in the leather trade and with regard to intoxicants and medical requisites. The cooperative .shops and societies also deserve mention. The best known is the Povenets Consumers' Association, and there are similar cooperative undertakings in Petrosavodsk, the Ostresheno »communal trading') and the cooperative shops in the villages of Ladva and livina in the province of Petrosavodsk. FENNIA 42 No. 3. 239 The following table shows the number of shops in the towns and the coun- try, and the amount of their sales in the year 1908. Shops in the Year igo8. Province Number of regis- tered businesses Amount of turn-over 1 [3* fD 8 In the towns In the covmtry Total 1 Roubles Olonets . . Petrosav. . Povenets . 19 156 11 169 218 96 188 374 107 186,825' 474,700 L504,036 668,710 219,100 413,300 661,525 2,172,746 632,400 Total 186t 483 ; 669 1,909,961 1.556,710 3.466,671 Markets, which formerly were so important, are now of little significance. The turnover at the chief market places has regularly decreased during recent decades. At the famous markets at Sunku in Povenets for example, the turn- over in the middle of the nineteenth century amounted to a million and a half roubles, but at present is only 150,000—200,000 roubles. Horse dealing is an important part of the markets, especially in the provinces of Povenets and Olonets. Horses are sold here not only from the neighbourhood, but also from Finland and from the governments of Archangel and Novgorod. Between 900 and 2,500 horses change hands each year at the markets, repre- senting a value of 50,000-110,000 roubles. In addition to the markets at Sunku, markets are also held at the Alexan- dro-Svirski monastery in the province of Olonets, at Vy tegra and at the church village of Oshtinski on the southern shores of Lake Onega. The total imports and exports of the forty-two markets of thegovernment of Olonets in the years 1 905 — 08 were as follows; 1905 1906 1,002,377 562,276 1907 1908 ,100,682 1,063,482 552,214 582,316 Imports, in roubles . , 1,005,205 Exports, » >> . 456,800 Peddling is not so important in Olonets Carelia as in the rest of East Care- lia. It is mostly carried on by the inhabitants of the province of Povenets, and to some extent also by women in the province of Olonets. Their wares are different kinds of draperies, such as thread, linen goods and lace, and Olo- 240 0. Lonnrolh, Trade and Industry. nets straw plaits and hats. This peddling formerly extended far into Finland and the interior of Russia, but is gradually dying out. The main imports from Finland into the provinces of Olonets and Petro- savodsk are wooden goods, horses, cattle and other animals, iron and iron ware, and vehicles. The corresponding exports are fish, grain and flour. As stated above, the wood imported chiefly consists of logs which are purchased by Russian dealers on the Finnish floating channels which run into Olonets. The grain exported to Finland, again, is mostly transit goods from the Svir district, and the fish comes partly from the White Sea, partly from the Care- lian inland waters. The remaining goods imported into Finland consist of the products of home industry and meat and game bought from the markets by Finns. We have already referred to the fact that there are no exact figures of the trade between Finland and the province of Povenets, as there are no frontier posts north of Suoj arvi. The trade has been considered so insignificant that the frontier has not been watched. Yet, according to Russian sources, the Russian country shops at Lentiera, Repola, Omelia, Kolvasjarvi, Munjarvi etc. obtain all their goods from Lieksa on the Finnish side, and shop-keepers further north in Kiimasjarvd obtain them from Kuhmo, mostly during the winter. These imports comprise different kinds of flour and grain, salt, groceries, Iron and ironware, vehicles and harness, anchors, rope, petroleum etc. -Some of this is transit goods, ordered from Russia. To Finland the imports are fish (especially froiv. the W^hite Sea), fish-roe, game, furs, leather, meat, butter, berries, hay, straw, and so on. In the year 1900 the imports over the frontier from Finland to the communes of Repola, Rukajarva and Paadene in the pro- vince of Povenets came to a total of about 950,000 kg., of which 200,000 kg. were transported via Kuhmo and the rest via Lieksa. These figures apparently do not include the consignments of grain which the zemstvo of Povenets or- ders each year for resale. (Cp. pp. 227—8). The goods exported to Finland came in 1900 to about 300,000 kg. The peasants in the frontier commune of Porajar\a, further south in the province of Povenets, carried on trade with the inhabitants of Ilomants. This commune also exports fish, game, meat etc. to Finland, and it chiefly imports the articles required for agriculture. The trade is, however, inconsiderable. Province of Kcm in The Government of Archangel. The trade relations of Kem Carelia have a different character from those of Olonets Carelia. The waterways, the only lines of traffic in these wilds, generally do not run noith and south, as in Olonets, but on the whole east and FENNIA 42 No. 3. 241 west. This fact, and the situation of the country between the Finnish frontier and the White Sea, have caused tiade to seek other channels than those it took in Olonets Carelia; it is directed westwards, towards Finland, rather than southwards towards Russia. Thus, even in the Middle Ages, trading expe- ditions were made from the mouth of the Kem river, right across the country to the Gulf of Bothnia, where furs and other White Sea products were sold. Later on began the transport to Finland of all sorts of industrial products, particular!}' textile goods, which came to the White Sea from the interior of Russia. Various necessities, spirituous liquors, etc. were bought in Finland and brought back on the return journey. This tran.sit trade then gave rise to the peddling, which developed into a common source of livelihood for the country side. The peddling begins in the autumn, when the land work is done. As recently as ten years ago, practically ever>- man who had a taste for trade went off, and some of the villages were quite denuded of their male popula- tion. But they no longer obtained their wares from Russia to any extent, but bought most of them in Finland. The poorer pedlars borrowed their stock from the richer ones, who bargained for a share in the profits, or else made the borrowers their agents. The pedlars did not return home until May or June, and sometimes remained away for several j-ears at a time. According to I. K. Inha (i) the villagers of Kiestinki and Piiajarvi mostly made their way to the Helsingfors and Abo districts and Aland, those from Vuokkiniemi to central F'inland, Tavastland and Ostrobothnia. Pedlars from Uhtua also visited these regions, as well as northern Finland, and those from Pistojarx'i chiefly noithern Finland. The inhabitants of Akonlahti, Luva- jarA'i and Kontokki traded in Savolaks and Ingria, and those of Paanajarvi, Suopussalmi, and Jyskyjarvu in Satakunta and the Abo district. The profits of this peddling were very small, as may be supposed, possibly a couple of hundred marks per man, and a few sacks of flour for the needs of the early summer. The peddling seems now to have decreased, owing to its unprofitableness. The number of Carelian traders who visited Finland in 1893 is supposed to have been 1,139, and their total profits 34,619 roubles. The corn supply. The grain grown in Kem Carelia only suffices for four oi five months. As in Olonets Carelia, therefore, the import of grain is one of the most important cares of the inhabitants. There are, however, but few corn- chandlers in Kem Carelia, the grain usually being purchased by authorities appointed for the purpose, such as the Archangel Food Conmiittee, the direc- (^) Kalevalan laulumailta, p. 419. 16 242 O. Lonnroih, Trade and Industry. tors of the Archangel grain stores in the towns of Kem and Suma, and the communal committees for borrowing grain. The grain comes from the regions of Rybinsk, Kostroma, Jaroslav and Vologda, partly via Archangel and Onega, and partly as transit goods from the government of Olonets. Some Russian grain for Kem Carelia goes via Finland. No figures have been available of the size of the consignments of grain which go to Kem Carelia. The fish trade, as shown in the chapter on the fisheries, is an important source of livelihood, especially for the coast population. Just as the men of the interior of Kem Carelia regularly go out peddling, so those of the coast go out to fish, mainly on the Murman Coast. Nearl)?^ all the summer work in the coast villages therefore falls to the women. Knipovitch calculates that two thirds of the Murman fishermen come frona the province of Kem. For the profits and sale of the fish, see the special chapter alieady cited. The trade in game appears to have been from of old one oi the most impor- tant sources of livelihood of Kem Carelia. It has now declined on the whole, though still carried on as a regular living in some places. According to the available statistics, the inhabitants of Kontokki, Jyskyjar\-i, Paanajai'vi and even of Njuhtcha, the most easterly commune, on the Gulf of Onega (see Fig. 55 for the village and river of Njuhtcha) are most active in killing game, while it forms but an inconsiderable source of income in Usmana, Kieretti, Kouta and Kandalaks. The hunters sell their quarry either at the Sunku markets, or at home to purchasers from Petrograd. For further particulars see the chapter on game and hunting. The li'ood industry and wood trade. Sawing is the only occupation in Kem Carelia which has risen to the level of a real factory industry. As stated above, there^ are good prospects for its development into a great industry of impor- tance to the economy of the whole countryside. There is no lack of raw material, and the extensive waterways lead to a number of harbour places on the White Sea which are suitable for toreign export trade, l^^uring the last few decades a number of sawmills working for export have been established on the coast. To the south, the best known are the Sorokka saw-mills at the trading centre at the mcuth of the Uikujoki. Timber business is done here by Messrs P. Be- layeff 's Successors and Messrs Charles Stewart. Their annual export amounts to nearly 22,000 tons and a value of a million and a half roubles. The next centre of the wood trade towards the north is the town of Kem at the mouth of the Kem river; heie there is a sawmill with seven frames owned by the Kem Steam Saw Mills Company Ltd. It employs 500 hands, and its annual export amounts to 10,000 standards of sawn timber. The village of Kieretti (Fig. 56), at the mouth of the Kierettijoki.must also be mentioned among the centres FENNIA 42 No. 3. 243 of the wood industry. The sawmill of Messrs-V. F. Savin in this village pro- duces anually 5,000 standards of sawn timber, to a value of 250,000 roubles. But the centre of the whole wood industry of Kem Carelia is Kouta, on the bay of the same name. The following industrial establishments here deserve mention; the Swedish firm of Kovda Aktiebolag (Arendt Berggren), which has six frames, annual output of 9,000 standards, and 250 employees; Messrs N. Rusanoff and Sons (The White Sea Saw Mills Company Ltd.) with four frames, 7,000 standards annual output and 250 emploj-ees; and Messrs Charles Stewart, with four frames, 6,000 standards annual output and 350 employees. The line of sawmills stretches still further north, for in the village of Umba on the Kola Peninsula Messrs P. Belayeff 's Successors have an estab- lishment with four frames and an annual output of 8,000 standards. There are no wood pulp mills in Kem Carelia. We mentioned in dealing with the wood trade of Olonets Carelia that it was chiefly concerned with half worked stuff, hewn in the forests, such as logs, props, wood for pulping, and fuel, while the products of the sawing in- dustry take the second place. In Kem Carelia the reverse is the case. Here, sawn stuff is the main article of export. The figures of the export trade will be given below, in connection with the general statement of the imports and exports of the ports of Kem Carelia. Mining, which has taken so important a place in the history of Olonets Carelia, is in Kem limited to some quite insignificant attempts. In the eigh- teenth century- some veins of pegmatite were opened here and there, chiefly for the sake of the mica they contained. There have also been attempts at working fluorspar at Kandalaks. Gold and copper have been found in the Uikujoki region, and copper also elsewhere. Iron ore, especially bog-ore, is abundant in places, but has not led to any industry worth mentioning. Home Industries, which in Olonets Carelia have old traditions and have produced good results, are so small in Kem as scarcely to deserve mention. This is easily explicable in view of the fact that the male population is away from home for a large part of the year, seeking a living by trade, timber hewing and floating, or fishing in the W^hite Sea and on the Murman Coast. Moreover, the countryside is so poor that it cannot maintain special skilled workmen. Craftsmanship is therefore on a comparatively low level. The men can manage building work and carpentr^^ and make boats and sledges, but skill in joinery or turning is rare. This is partly due to the difficulty^ of obtaining wood for joinery, as nearly all the forests belong to the state. There is also an absence of skilled smiths, tailors and shoemakers. What is needed is therefore ordered and obtained from other parts, either from Finland or from Olonets Carelia. 244 O. Lonnroth, Trade and Industry. The women's home industry is on rather a higher level than that of the men. It is true that materials and other woven products are bought from elsewhere, chiefly Olonets and Archangel, but both skill and taste are shown in the sewing, ornamentation and colours. In any case, home industries are (luite unimpor- tant from a monetary' point of \ ie^v. The centres ol trade on the coast, exports and imports. Regular sea traffic is maintained between the different ports on the coast of Kem Carelia, and to some extent also with foreign ports. The centre of traffic is the town of Kem (Fig. 57), from which vessels ply to Suma, Onega, the Solovets monastery, Archangel and the ports on the northern coast. This town is the centre of administration (post, customs, telegraph, hospital, government offices, police, prison, etc.) In 1904 che port was visited by twenty- three vessels (twenty- one steamers and two sailing ships) sailing under foreign flags. There was an equal number of Russian vessels. In the same year, 58 tons of fish were im- ported by sea, at a value of 4,270 roubles, while there were exported 17,752 tons of wood, at a value of 410,628 roubles, grain worth 36 and tar worth 12 roubles. Owing to the tides, vessels cannot put in to the shore, but have to load out in the roads. The port of Sorokka, the mo.st important centre of trade and export in southern Kem Carelia, lies about eighty kilometres south of the town of Kem, at the mouth of the Uikujoki. In the year 1904 its exports were 22,723 tons of wood at a value of 525,769 roubles, 43 tons of grain at a value of 2,728 roubles, and considerable quantities of fish. The imports were 1 17 tons of fish, worth 8,035 roubles, 3 tons of salt at 33 roubles, 10 tons of coal at 100 roubles, 19 tons of machiner\^ and iron and steel goods at 4,915 roubles, 40 tons of cement and bricks at 920 roubles, and other goods to a value of 1,600 roubles. During the same year, twenty- three vessels came to the port, and fifty sailed from it, twenty-one of them under foreign flags (a number of vessels had spent the winter there). Between Kem and Scrokka. and thirty kilometres north of the latter, there is the little harbour of vSuiku, at the mouth of the Suijunjoki. The exports from here in the year 1904 were 46 tons of, half-worked wood (spars and fuel) worth 339 roubles, and 46 tons of grain worth 2,640 roubles. The number of steamers sailing from the port was four. The market town of Suma, in the south of Kem Carelia, is a centre of the fish trade. It is situated at the mouth of the Sumajoki, forty-five kilo- metres south-east of Sorokka. There is lively transit traffic through this town, especially in the winter, with the transport of fish from the White Sea south- wards to Povenets and Petrograd (cp. p. 229), and northwards of various necessities for the coa^t population. The numerous pilgrims to the monastery of Solovets also pass through Suma. In the summer there is less traffic. In FENNIA 42 No. 3. 245 the year 1904 only four steamers called at the harbour, bringing fish and salt and loading with wood for the return journey. The most notable harbours and places of trade in northern Kem Carelia are Kouta and Kieretti. Kouta, at the mouth of the Koutajoki, is the prin- ciple centre of traffic in this countryside, and is also an important adminis- trative centre. In the year 1904 51 vessels entered the harbour, 49 of them under foreign flags, and 50 left it, 49 again being foreigners. In the same year the exports comprised 50,150 tons of wood stuff to a value of 1,340,478 roub- les, 29 tons of other goods, to a value of 1,600 rouble?, and considerable quan- tities of fish. The imports were small, and comprised 13 tons of fish worth 1 ,500 roubles, 1 % tons of salt, worth 50 roubles, 49 tons of coal and coke \Vorth 500 roubles, 4 tons of iron and steel goods and 1 ton of other goods, worth 271 roubles. Kieretti has a good harbour at the mouth of the Kieretinjoki. Its e\ports were in 1904 4,786 standards of sawn timber at a value of 242,300 roubles and considerable quantities of fish. The harbour was visited by 12 steamers under foreign flags. Other harbours and places of traffic in northerr Kem Carelia are Knjasa or Knjisoi (a good harbour and fishing station) Musta- joki (fishing centre) and Gridinko. The most important harbours and centres of traffic on the coast of Kanda- laks are Kandalaks at the mouth of the Nivajoki, and Umba at the mouth of the Umbajoki. Kandalaks is known as a centre of fishing and trade, and Umba for its timber export. 10,7 10 standards of sawn timber to a value of 426,050 roubles, were exported from Umba in 1904. The Murman Railway. A few words must be added in this connection about the new Murman railway. The proposal to build a railway through East Ca- relia to some port on the Arctic Ocean was first made in the eighteen-seventies but did not then lead to anj^ result. vSome twenty years later the proposal received fresh impetus, chiefl}^ owing to the then Minister of Finance, S. WiTTE, who made a journey to the Murman Coast in connection with the scheme. The town of Alexandrovsk, which was to be the terminus of the rail- way, was founded on the Kola Fjord in 1894, and in the following year the government began work on the Petrograd— Petrosavodsk section of the line. The work was shortly suspended, however, because the construction of the great Siberian railway and various other lines was thought to be more impor- tant. In 1903 it was resolved to resume work on the Murman line, but the Japanese War caused another postponement. The construction of the Petro- grad— Petrosavodsk section was only begun in earnest in 1913, and the Petro- savodsk— Murman section not until the autumn of 1915. 246 O. Ldniuoth, Trade and Industry. The building of the Murnian railway was then pushed on with feverish haste, for as the world war had closed Russia's access to the ocean through both the Baltic and the Elack Seas, it was essential to maintain communica- tion with the Allies through arctic ports. More than, 25,000 workmen were emploj'ed on the works, including a large number of German and Austrian prisoner? of wor. They were mostly under the direction of American engi- neers, who had an extraordinary power of getting things done. The railway was absolutely finished in November 1916. It did not extend to Alexandrovsk, however, but a new terminus was established on the east shore of the Kola Fjord, some way north of the town of Kola, where a new town, called Roma- nov, "was founded. The average cost of the railway was 182,000 roubles per verst, or a total of 249,000,000 roubles. The Murman railway is 1,459 kilometres long, reckoning from Petrograd, and comprises the following sections; Petrograd— Svanka .. 122 km S V anka — P etrosavodsk .. 284 » Petrosa vodsk — S orokk a .. 380 » Sorokka — Kandalaks . . . . .. 395 » Kandalaks -Romanov . . . . .. 278 » The intention was to establish a good harbour at some point on the Arctic Coast which would be open to shipping all the year round (the port of Archan- gel is subject to serious ice difficulties, and is much too shallow), and to con- nect this with the Russian railway system. It was expected that this would prove a considerable economic benefit to extensive territories in northern Russia, especially if the Murman railway could further be connected with the Siberian railway. The connecting line, plans for which have apparently al- ready been drafted, would start near Sorokka and run to the station of Plesetskaya on the Archangel -Vologda line, and thence on \'ia Shenkursk, Kotlas (which was also connected with Archangel by a railway line in 1915), and Perm to Jekaterinenburg, where it would meet the Siberian railway. This would form a direct and quick route to a good place of export for Siberian butter and other agricultural produce, and the railway would at the same time facilitate the import of agricultural machinery' and other articles of necessity to that land of great possibilities in Asia. Apart from this cross line and the economic advantages it may produce, the Murman railway is of the utmost local importance also. Special refer- FENNIA 42 No. 3. 247 ence may be made to its importance and indeed indispensabil* ty for the Arctic coast and White Sea fish trade, and for the devcicpment of the wood industn,' in these regions. The \ast wealth of fish in the Arctic Ocean and the White Sea is at present squandered by most primitive methods and absolute lack of system. The greater part of the catch is wasted for lack of communications and cold storage and conserving apparatus. The Murman railway affords fresh possibilities of development in this respect. The fish can be transported more speedily to the places of consumption, and apparatus for a regular large scale fish industry- can quickly be sent up on the new line. The industry' has certainly just as good prospects here as in Norway. It is the same with the wood industr>\ Sawing is at present the only wood industry at work in these extensive forest regions, and that is still in its beginning. The new railway will doubtless soon lead to a chemical pulp and a paper industry'. It is possible that improved communications may also succeed in bringing the neglected mining industry to fresh life, The Murman railway has extraordinary- importance to Finland. A connec- tionbetween it and theFinnish railway system would probably bring this country considerable economic benefit. But so long as the railway is Russian, it forms a danger which must not be underestimated. Onni Lonnroth. 6. The Posting System. The posting stations on the great highways of Russia are subordinate to the Post Office, and provide travellers with conveyance at a cost of three kopeks per horse per verst. One of these posting roads runs through Olonets Carelia, from Petrograd through the town of Olonets to Petrosavodsk and thence on to Povenets and Suma on the coast of the White Sea (see fig. 32). In regions which lie off the posting roads in Russian Carelia, as elsewhere in Russia, the officials of the state, the zemstvos and the communes have the right to convej-ance. The majority of them obtain conveyance free, while others, including the priests, have it for three kopeks per horse per verst. Private individuals can also be given the right to conveyance for special pur- poses, by the zemstvo of a province or government, and this entitles them either to free conveyance or conveyance at the price of three kopeks per horse per verst (see figs. 58 and 59), as the case may be. On the larger high roads there are posting stations controlled by the zemst- 248 P. Eskola. The Posting System. vos of the provinces, which have a fixed number of horses (Fig. 60). If all these horses happen to be out, convej-ance can also be obtained from the post- ing station belonging to the village community' or niir. When the zemstvo has no posting station, the mir is alone responsible for providing conveyance. Most of the villages, especially those in remote parts, are completely without posting stations and the villagers share the posting work between them by the week. When a traveller arrives at such a village he has to apply to the dessiatnik (a local official), whose duty it is to know whose week it is. In regions where there are no roads, travellers are conveyed from village to village on horse-back (see fig. 46), or else guides and porters are provided. Boat posting is in use for travelling by water, the price for one horse and driver being taken to equal that of a boat with two oarsmen and a steersman, two horses correspond to a boat with a crew of five, and so on. The posting stations to some extent answer to the Finnish posting inns. Travellers are entitled to free quarters for the night. There are generally no conveniences, and the standard of cleanliness is poor. In the province of Povenets there are iron bedsteads with mattress and blanket, but no sheets. The peasants have always felt the posting obligations as burdensome. The posting dues have not been raised during the war, although the number of travellers increased greatly as wounded and sick soldiers on leave had a right to conveyance. For this reason, and because of the fall in the value of money, the occupiers of posting stations applied to the zemstvos and village communities for permission to raise the dues, and struck in some places, when their demands could not be granted. The fact that strikes were not general, at least up to the autumn of 1917, although there is no doubt that the obliga- tion was the source of great loss, is largely due to the fact that peasants who served the posting s^^stem were exempt from military serv^ice. All over the province of Povenets conveyance was still willingly supplied in the autumn of 1917, which is to some extent an evidence of the loyaltj' of the Carelians. Boat posting was naturally still more disadvantageous to the peasants during the war than posting by horse, and has often been quite unobtainable for lack of labour. Women have from ancient times been generally employed to row. Although a conveyance is, therefore, not often refused at the posting sta- tions, it often happens that the traveller is urged to enter in the day-book a larger number of horses than he actually uses. This is done so that if another traveller should arrive on the same day, the posting peasant may be able to say that the horses are not at home. Apparently this abuse is not considered Fig. 55. Village of Njuhtcha on the Njuhtcha. Province of Kem. Photo /. Sourander. Fig. 56. Kieretti Church Village, at tb«. Moa1'i'.bP.|6^;\^ *! Kieretti River. Province of Kem. Photo /. A' liiha. Fig'. 57. Town of Keni. Photo /. A". Inha. '^«rgt*¥ ..- i -^ v • •» ""^^^^^^^^^IWIM Fig. 58. High Road in the Province of Povenets. Photo C Muitck. [■■l^iaiiii ^hiii^.... M' — c»iiw'"p*. "^^^i..-, ,J^^ '^n ^'■•^ f^A ^ ,&1 ll ^^^S^^SBJpK" - 1^^^^-' '. .vf- ■ ■^E Fig. 59. Women Mending a High Road, Kentjarvi. Province of Povenets. Photo P. Eikola. Fig. 60. Zemstvo Posting Inn at L'oss?!n:i. I'lovias?^ 61,^' • /;< Petrosavodsk. Photo P. Eskola. Fig. 61. Bringing Grain from Finland by Boat. Th^ Ijdat' is 'beiffg dragged over an isthmus. Kem Carelia. Photo /. K. Inha. FEXNIA 42 No. 3. 249 in the least dishonest, for the same persons may be very scrupulous when it is a question of observing a fast day. P. ESKOLA 7. Intercourse by Water. The Carelians, like other Finnish races, were formerly a boat-building people. Olaus Magnus gives the following account, which shows that the abundance of lakes in their country' early educated them as inland seamen, if such an expression may be used. »They use for ship building the pines and firs of their forests, which they split into narrow planks and join together with great skill, using nothing but the fresh tender roots of the trees, which serve as hemp rope. Others, again, tie their boats together with twisted with- ies of aspen or other wood. Others again build their boats by tying the planks together with the sinews of animals twisted together, polished and dried in the sun and air. All the boats, however they are built, are carefull}' smeared with tar from the pine trees. » The picture which accompanies the above des- cription of boat building in Olaus Magnus' History of the Northern Peoples, is also shown on his map of the north, but here he has placed it on the shores of Ule Lake, so it is possible that he had in mind the boat building of the people of Kajana. There is another picture of a boat on Olaus Magnus' map, between Ule Lake and the White Sea. Here four long-bearded men are shown dragging a boat across from one waterway to the other. Nevertheless he says in his Histor}^ which contains the same picture, that »as soon as the road is closed by lakes and rivers, they build new vessels, on which they carry their goods over». The Kalevala lays, which have been preserved to our own day in some of the most remote villages of East Carelia, also bear witness to the seamanship of the Carelians. It is also shown unmistakeably by the history- of the settling of this frontier land. By the help of the traditions still preserved here and there, one can in many cases trace the swifter advance of the population from lake to lake along the water systems, and its slower march across the water- sheds, especially when these are formed by mountain chains which closed the way or bogs which obstructed it. The population settled in comparatively large villages on the more important waterways, or at places where paths and roads crossed navigable waters. The waters near the villages were usually soon despoiled of their fish, and the population was obliged either to seek new fishing grounds in the lakes of the wilds, or to abandon fishing as their chief 250 y. E, Rosber^, Intercourse by Water. occupation and take to trade or other means of livelihood. In the former case they maintained their former skill in moving on the water and in building boats, while in the latter case the boat building craft was forgotten, or carried on as a trade usually by some few families, and occasionally by a whole village. At the present day, for example, the village of Laasari in the province of Pov- enets is famous for its good boat builders. It is still considered a necessity to have a boat in nearly every homestead. It is wanted if one is going to make a fishing expedition to some lake in the forest, on the shore of which a so-called fisher's bathhouse has been built. These small, low huts are called bathhouses because they are heated by stone stoves without chimneys and placed in a corner as far as possible from the door. The walls are generally of cloven logs, the roof is covered with birch- bark, and the chance visitor makes himself a floor by carrying in an armful of fir branches, which he strews on the part where he means to rest. When the stove is heated, the hut is filled with smoke, one good result of which is that the mosquitoes make their way out, sadly humming, through the cracks in the walls and roof, but has on the other hand the disadvantage that one cannot keep one's eyes open. The length of time spent at a fisher's bathhouse may be longer or shorter — in other words, it is as long as the fish last. Boats are also needed for going to make the hay in the excellent sedge meadows on the banks of rivers or lakes, which are often at a ver\' great distance. There, what are called hay bathhouses have been put up, so that a roof may be avail- able for the nights and in case of rainy weather. To the inhabitants of the wilds, who have no practicable roads leading to their villages and homesteads, boats are naturalh' indispensable, and the waterways are just as important to intercourse as in the olden days. As far as we can judge, the art of shooting rapids was highl}' developed among the ancient Carelians, but now it has been forgotten in many places, especially where there are good roads. But in the north of East Carelia, for example, men can still be found who are skilled in steering through the rapids, and good boats for such waters. Boats of the same model as that used in northern Ostrobothnia are still in use on Kuittijarvi, while on Tuoppajarvi, for example, short high boats with high prows are used, which live better in the choppy waters of that stormy little inland sea. The boats on the river Kem are shorter than those of northern Finland, but nevertheless excellent for the rapids. On the Uikujoki, on the other hand, the boats are compara- tively clumsily built. Those on the Lieksa water system are something like the Savolaks boats, and those on Onega are more or less of the Ladoga t>-pe, though not so heavily built., FEXXIA 42 No. 3. 251 Shooting the rapids in East Carelia is generally a very difficult sport, for no trouble is taken to clear the channels so as to make boating easier. For tlys reason, boats are in many places kept above and below the rapids, or else they are dragged over laud beside the rapids on causeways or rollers (fig. 61). Boats are seldom punted up or down the rapids, as is the custom in many parts of Finland, and an oai for steering with is only used in going down the rapids in the northern watercourses and near the Finnish frontier. On lakes and broad stretches, it is usual to row with two pair of oars, the man sitting in the stern rowing forwards and steering at the same time. On the Tchirka- kemijoki one can still sometimes hear the man in the stern hum bars from the Kalevala to mark the time for the oars. In the parts where the waterways are still the only or at least the most convenient means of communication, boats are obtainable at the posting sta- tions at a fixed tariff (cp. the chapter on the posting system.) Nowadays, owing to the lack of labour, boat-posting is supplied most unwillingly, espe- cially during the hay harvest. In the interior of East Carelia, howev^er, where there is no other means by which the traveller can proceed, the peasant heaves a sigh and makes the best of his fate to send the voyager on, in order that he may not tarr\' longer in the homestead. If a road or path ends at the shore of a lake, and the village to which one is proceeding is on the opposite shore, one shouts for a boat from the village with all the power of one's lungs, and if the sound is not heard, lights a fire as signal. The peasant who is liable for the posting is obliged to heed the sig- nal and fetch the traveller across. It used to be the custom of the Russian offi- cials to have two signal fires lit, to show that the travellers were »masters» and demanded the best boat and greatest possible speed. The water systems and rivers which are most used for traffic are the Kouta- joki, Tuoppajoki (difficult rapids) and the Oulankajoki (Kivakkakoski rapids), the Kieretti system, the river Kem (little used for boating below Usmana as there is a good high road on the left bank), the Kuittijar\-i system, the Tchirkka- kemijoki and the Kivijar\-i syftem. Much frequented waterways lead from the two last systems to the parishes of Suomussalmi and Kuhmoniemi on the . Finnish side of the frontier. The Lieksanjoki is also frequently used for expe- ditions into Finland, in spite of its numerous small rapids and currents, until Pankakoski rapids, near Pielisjar\d, prevent further progress. According to the information in historical documents, there was during the Middle Ages fairly lively traffic via Pankajar^-i, Tuulijarvi and Kolvasjar\-i to Repola and thence through Roukkala, Kiimasjarvi, Leasjarvi and Piismalahti and finally along the river Kem, to the town of Kem. Boats seem to have been used in 252 J. E. Rosberp, Intercourse by Water. the summer wherever possible for transporting goods all along this line- Before the Murman railwa)^ was built the river Uikujoki was much used as a boating way. • The waterways of East Carelia offer excellent opportunities for communi- cation by motor boat. The small rivers and lakes of the south are particularly suitable for this purpose. Motor boats have long been in use on the wide, open stretches of Ladoga, Onega and Seesjiirvi, although, owing to the high seas, they have mostly to be limited to coast traffic. Tugs, used to tow the timber rafts, are seen on the northern lakes, Paiijarvi for example. But on the swift rivers of the north the only boating possible is that with strongly built river boats. Nevertheless, many of the rivers which contain many rapids also have long stretches of open water which are suitable for motor boat traffic. Such rivers are, for example, the Uikujoki, Sekehenjoki (Segesha) Sununjoki, and Suojoki. There is lively steamer and goods traffic along the Svir, which forms one link in the canal route which connects the Gulf of Finland with the Volga, south of the level southern shores of Ladoga and Onega. The great variations in the height of the water is a hindrance to traffic on many rivers, as also in northern Finland. The spring comes quickly in the interior of the countr\% and makes the snow melt fast. This easily causes floods, especially as no one thinks of cleansing the water courses. In the late sum- mer, again, there ma}' be a long drought, which causes the water to sink consi- derably, to the detriment of boating. These variations in the water level are still more noticeable in places where the forests have been cut down, as round the villages and the railway. On the other hand, where there are large bogs or marshes within the basin of the water system, these ser\^e to minimise the v^ariations, and the central lakes also form reservoirs which receive the super- fluous water and afterwards distribute it to the rivers draining the lakes. Tree trunks, branches and all sorts of floating brushwood collect during the flood season in the rivers of the wilds and especially in the winding bog-streams,, and may close the whole channel and thus prevent boat traffic. The waterways of East Carelia freeze early, and this diminishes their value as channels of intercourse or timber floating. But on the other hand, during the winter they form excellent sledge roads. The Carelian is, we know, a keen trader, and makes a pleasure of trading expeditions. Winter iourne5's are especially popular. The men lie indolently on the loads and chat with their companions while their sledges glide slowly forward on the level ice. J. E. ROSBERG. FINAL SURVEY OF ECONOMIC, RELIGIOUS AND POLITICAL LIFE. As the above account shows, East Carelian agriculture can be substantially improved, and has a splendid future before it. The forests and water power, however, form the chief wealth, and these natural resources are certain to give rise to very important industries in the future. We say »in the future>>, for the utilisation of this forest capital, for various reasons, cannot and must not be forced on too hard. For the sake of the population and its weal, those responsible must try- very seriously to prevent this land from becoming merely a Tom Tiddler's ground for speculators and great capitalists, for whom forests and water power have a peculiar attraction. These resources must of course be rationally util- ised, that is clear, — and we shall have something to say about this later on — but the economic and social progress of the population must not be ignored, and it is in this direction that reform is most pressing. We ha\-e seen how agriculture can thrive if the peasants own their land, communications are im- proved, and the standard of education in the countr}- rises. This last neces- sity, which is j ust as indispensable as the others, and is indispensable for pro- gress in whatever sphere, leads us to the social and political sides of the question. In previous ages, the Russian government took very little interest in the Carelian countr}-. At the end of last century, at the time of the high political schemes for expansion in the north-west and the russification policy in Fin- land, there began violent efforts to denationalise East Carelia also. But such a policy does not lead to progress and the advancement of culture. On the con- trar)-, it is destructive, and a bar to progress. And everything suggests that if conditions in Russia should become orderly, which must happen sooner or later, there would alwaj-s be the danger of denationalisation, if East Carelia remained under Russian domination. Even if the government should be particularly good, and tender for the interests of the population, one cannot expect that it would wish to further the national aspirations of the Carelian population. 254 riieodor HomSn. Final Survey of Economic, Religious and Political Life. These aspirations are bound to appear to the Russian mind more or less in the light of separatism, especially as Finland lies just beside. And in any case, even if the government were as liberal as possible in the above respects, conditions under Russian rule — the Russian officials, schools, the direct rail- way communication with Petrograd and the interior of Russia while certainly no such communication would be established with Finland — could not fail to have a denationalising effect. If, therefore, social progress in East Carelia is to proceed on a national basis — the only sound and natural basis on which it can prove fruitful —.this can only take place through the union of that coun- try with Finland. The Carelians realise this perfectl}' well, and long for such a union. Geographically, physically and ethnographically, this country forms with Finland one natural and continuous whole, while it is clearly and sharply divided from Russia. If the Carelians were to form one people together with us, they could receive in their own Finnish language the culture we Finns have received from the west, and the methods of agriculture which are suited to the very similar natural conditions of the two lands. What has been and what ought to be the attitude of Finland towards the East Carelians' desire to be united with our country? Different views on this question are taken in Finland. It is right to examine the question carefull}-. The safet>' of this country must not lightly be exposed to menacing dangers from future complications and ideas of reconquest, which might possibly be the result of the transfer- ence of a large territon,'- from Russia to Finland. Nevertheless, it may be said in answer to those who warn us against a union of East Carelia with this countr>% or at least against any demand for it or intervention in the matter on our part, that we are naturally all tr\ang hard to establish good relations and neigh- bourly friendliness with the future Russia. This is of course essential. But this good relationship may be jeopardized in the future, if East Carelia and the Kola Peninsula continue to be Russian possessions. Even supposing that we, suffering from the strain of economic and other difficulties, now resign ourselves, it is highly improbable that the coming, growing generation, on both sides of the frontier, can endure with calmness a permanent »irridenta»; they will resent the knowledge that now, when something really could have been done, nothing has been gained but a promise by the Bolsheviks to grant the East Carelians autonomy, — a promise which has proved absolutely valueless. And what will our relations with Russia be like? It must surely be admitted that we could not possibly see our kinsmen, who by nature belong to Finland, going slowly but surely towards a national death and exploi- ted by foreign usurpers, and at the same time maintain cordial relations with FRXNIA 42 Xo. 3. 255 Russia. Such a degree of self-abnegation is unthinkable, and when whole peoples and future generations are concerned, would be false and despicable. If, on the other hand, East Carelia were united with Finland, it ought soon to be possible for relations with Russia to become good and friendly again. For East Carelia is a Finnish country. Russia knows that, an^ that is the basic fact w-hich settles the question. It may at the moment be wounding to chauvinist natures in Russia to surrender this territor>% but it is no question of piercing the national heart or sundering the national unity. It seems to us, therefore, that the great historical, social and general human considerations must decide the verdict in the end. And, as often before in history, they will in the end prove to be those which can best safeguard peace between the peoples. From this point of view, it is our duty, more than any one else's, to try to save the Finns east of our frontier from the national death which threa- tens them as long as they remain under the dominion of Russia. The Finnish race ought at last to be united into one whole, a single people. The recently gained independence of Finland will be only half accomplished if only part of the whole is set free, only part of the people which has for centuries inhabited andcultivatedthegreatterritorylj'ing between the Gulf of Finland and theGiilf of Bothnia on the south and west, the Arctic Ocean and theWhite Sea on the north-east. Lakes Onega and Ladoga on the south-east, while the part which inhabits the eastern portion of this, our natural territory, is left to meet its death. Russia cannot raise the culture of that land, to which it is a stranger. This task is ours. It is on us that the enlightened members of the population build their hopes. To us they have addressed their appeal for help. It is our duty to try to extend to our brothers the western civilisation that we have received. If we do so, we shall be doing a good deed in the service of human civilisation, and we ourselves shall gain in strength and in esteem. If we fail, on the other hand, the vengeance may fall terribly upon ourselves. It must certainly be admitted that Russia's interest in reconquering Fin- land might be increased by a union of East Carelia with Finland, and espe- cially by the loss of the Kola railway, which connects Russia with an ice- free port on the world-ocean. That disadvantage could, however, be very consi- derably mitigated, for Finland would naturally, if only in its own interest, be anxious to make Russian traffic on that railway as easy, speedy and cheap as possible. The inter nationalisation of the railwa}' could also be considered. And if we have to fear a future attack from Russia, which may be the case quite apart from the question of East Carelia and the Murman railway, the union of East Carelia with Finland would make us much stronger in defence. The frontier against Russia between Lakes Ladoga and Onega, and between 256 Theodor Homen. Final Survey of Econoinic, Religious and Political I.ife. Onega and the White »Sea, would be only a quarter as long as that from Ladoga to the Patsjoki, and for this reason in itself nianj' times easier to de- fend than the present strategically »impossibIe» frontier. The defence of this, when the enemy had the Kola railway in his rear, would be exceedingly diffi- cult, and would at once demand very huge armies. We sympathise with our brothers east of the present Finnish frontier, who in their simple conditions and thanks to their hitherto isolated position, cut off from the outer world, have faithfully preserved their nationalit}- pure and fresh. This sympathy exhorts us to do what lies in our power to bring about the union of East Carelia with the rest of Finland. We ought also to do all we can for the betterment of that backward country, to dev el ope it, and to help it to coalesce with the rest of Finland into a strong and united whole. The example of the re-union of the province of Viborg with Finland 1812 gives good hopes that we could attain that end. But just for this very reason, we must not, if the union takes place, regard the new territory" chiefly as a field for exploitation by industries and greedy capital. W^e must think above all of the general spiritual and social welfare ot the people in that part of the country^. That is our duty, and that will en- noble our efforts to unite that countrv with the rest of Finland. The account of the land and people of Kola Lapmark and East Carelia contained in the present book, is in what follows made the basis of certain conclusions, and certain reflections as to the lines which should be followed, in planning measures for the benefit of this land. The possibility of a union with Finland has been specially taken into consideration in discussing church matters, although many of our compatriots have shown some anxietj' at the thought of the dualism in religious faith which would result in this country- from the incorporation of East Carelia. Occupations. Agriculture must naturally receive the greatest attention among the occu- pations of the country. This has been the case in most countries, and in the future may perhaps be so to an even greater degree than before. In Finland the government has always wished to give special support to agriculture, but nevertheless agricultural progress has been less than was hoped, FEXXIA 42. No. 3. '.'57 at any rate in comparision with the bounteousness of the authorities. And while agriculture, in spite of all the nursing it got from the government, made onh' moderate progress, forest industry — I will not yet say proper forest-care — has had a notable boom, owing to individual enterprise and skill, and the natural advantages possessed b>- this country. Thus the experience of Finland does not go to show that the state, by favouring one particular occupation, always produces the effect intended. Yet one is bound to maintain that the state ought to do what it can, and even make certain sacrifices, in order to improve East Carelian agriculture. This territory- must be regarded as almost unbroken, virgin soil, which has to be populated and cultivated, a land where there has not 3'et been any real cultivation. Under these conditions, it is right and natural for the government to do a good deal in the way of assistance and regulation, much as when a new territory- is being settled. The soil is verj- fertile in the south, round Lakes Ladoga and Onega, and all over East Carelia the climate is such that agriculture could be remunera- tive. A sufficient number of small and modest agricultural schools should be established in connection with model farms, and competent instructors ap- pointed. The most important thing, but unfortunately also the most diffi- cult, is to obtain as heads for these establishments and as instructors really skilled and practical men, w^ho can see and understand what the situation and conditions of this new land demand. The peculiar conditions of land-ownership in this territory- call for special measures of reform. Most of the land is owned by the state. In the three south- ern provinces, Olonets, Petrosavodsk and Povenets, the state owned before the war QS^/q of the soil, and the peasant communities 29.9 "/q, while in the vast province of Kem, the state owned 98.5 ^/^ and the peasant com- munities scarcely 0.7 «/„ of the whole. The rest belonged to the towms and religious houses. The old institution of the mir, with the soil as the common property of the village communities, was still in practical force. In the three southern provinces each homestead had on an average 80.2 hectares of the land belonging to the village communities, and this is not little, but in the province of Kem the average was only 7 hectares. In all the provinces, however, the amount of cultivated land is very- small, being generally one or two hectares per homestead. If the conditions of landownership are to be improved, a general division of the land must be carried out. At the same time it must be arranged that each peasant household which tills the soil receives a sufficient amount of cultivable land. Where the area belonging to the village community is so 17 •jr)8 Theodor Homeii. Final Survey of Economic, Religious and Political Life. small as not to provide enough land for each homestead, it must be supple- mented by the state on favourable conditions. This is the case nearly everywhere in the province of Kem, and in some places in the southern provinces. As burn-beating has already been stopped in the state forests, those of the inha- bitants who really need more land, to be able to make their way, must naturally receive it. There will in an}^ case be vast areas left for further settlement, even if the state wishes itself to retain the greater part of its present large territory. It is equally important, as we tried to make clear in the section specially devoted to the description of agriculture, that the area of the large and thickly populated villages should be so divided and distributed that each homestead can receive its holding as near as possible to the dwelling-house. This will cer- tainly involve great changes and take time, but if good results are to be attained no other course is possible. The important thing is not in the least that each homestead should get a lot of land, wherever situated — possibly some tens of kilometres distant, as meadows often are now — and forest to sell for a song, but that really good and profitable agriculture should be estab- lished. The natural conditions exist, but without this reform the end cannot be reached. And, naturally, the best and only right course is for this reform to be made at the same time as the land is given to the peasants — other- wise the latter measure will' be a complete failure, and the difficulties of the former considerably greater. The state must also do all it can to assist further settlement and cultivation of the vast tracts in the future. It is above all imperative to get this great country peopled with capable people who will found families and have good incomes, so that they can support and look after their families. This is the only way in which anything good can come of the country of Carelia. It must be added that the bogs and bog-meadows of several regions, espe- cially of the southernmost part of East Carelia, are of excellent quality and easily cultivable. It is possible that in the more fertile southern parts of the country bog-cultivating settlements might be considered, such as have been much under discussion in our own country for the last fifteen or twenty years. Even though East Carelian agriculture is at present at a ven,- low level, there are in most regions good and in some places exceptionally good pros- pects of profitable tillage, if only adequate communications are established, the land is better divided, and knowledge of methods of cultivation becomes more general. The large cultivable tenitory offers plenty of space for settlers, and if a few skilled agriculturalists from Finland or other agricultural coun- FENKIA 42, No. 3. ^oO tries were to settle down there, they are bound to help to spread a know- ledge of their craft among the natives. Fis/iiiig. The descriptive sections show that fishing is the chief occupation of the population of the Kola Peninsula and the greater part of the province of Keni. In the south of East Carelia also it plays a very important part in the economy of the population. During the last two decades, the Russian government has done a good deal to assist the fisheries on the Murman Coast. Various measures are, however, still needed. The sea fishing carried on by the inhabitants has hitherto been wholly confined to coastal fishing within the territorial waters. But if the freightage along the coast were somewhat improved, companies and associations from the Murman Coast could trawl in the open sea outside the territorial waters, to much greater advantage than foreigners who have to corhe from great distances. Appropriate inspection and instruction, dealing for instance with the con- ser\'ation and sale of the fish taken, could greatly improve both the sea fisher- ies of Murman and the White Sea, and the lake and river fishing of the whole territory-, including Onega and Ladoga in the south. It would also be desirable and necessary to establish a few simple and prac- tical fishery stations in connection with the work of instruction, and as points of support for it. The greatest attention should be paid to the salmon fishing in the salmon rivers. Forestry arid Industry. The greater portion of the country almost up to the Arctic Coast consists of forest land, part of which is very good and part rather lean, together with bogs and marshes, the bogs often carrj-ing fairly good forest. As most of this land belongs to the state, and north of the sixty- fourth latitude practically all the land, a very extensive organisation is re- quired to give these forests even tolerable care. The paucity of population, the poor means of communication, the fact that in the upper reaches of the rivers little has yet been done to improve the channels for timber-floating, together with the lack of purchasers, especially for the smaller timber, all combine to pre- vent scientific forestry and the economic utilisation of the timber resources. The state income from this vast territory has been very small, considering the mass of timber there, as has been seen in the section on the forests. It is scarcely possible to count on a larger revenue, either, until the above deficien- cies have been remedied. In these northern regions, moreover, there is need of great care in cutting and exploiting the forest. The outermost forest zone of the Kola Peninsula is in the most literal meaning of the term, a cover against the arctic winds and the polar influences. But even in East Carelia proper, from Kandalaks south- 2t)() riicodor HoDieii. Final Survey of Kcononiic, Kcliiiious and Political Life. wards, the utmost care must be taken to avoid any kind of devastation of the forests, both in order to prevent bogging of the forest land, which easily occurs in these northern regions, and in view of the extraordinary importance of the East Carelian forests from a climatic point of view. This importance stret- ches far beyond the frontiers of the country, over all Finland in particular, and is in this country very great. The forests of Kola lyapmark and East Care- lia protect us against the drought and frost in the early summer which the cold northerl)' and easterly winds would otherwise bring from the White Sea. We have qmte enough already with the dry north-west winds from the Gulf of Bothnia. If the East Carelian forests should be destroyed, the winds from the Arctic Ocean and the White Sea would beyond all doubt be still more devasta- ting than these others. The forests of the south of East Carelia have likewise a great climatic importance, which also extends to Finland, in that they add to the moisture of the atmosphere in the dry earl}^ summer, when easterly and south-easterly winds prevail. Thus they increase the rainfall of Finland, which, as shown in the section on climate, is at that season altogether too small. Thus the forests of East Carelia must be exploited with the utmost catttion and scientific thought, and in general, forestry must be given the most careful attention. Means of Communication. Several of the descriptive chapters have already spoken of the urgent need for better communications, and it is easy to under- stand that intercourse is not sufficiently served by boat traffic in the summer on the lakes and rivers, encvunbered as the latter are b}' rapids, and horse traffic over the snow in the winter. The very defective road sj^stem must be developed and ramified. Railwa3's and steamboats must gradually be intro- duced. All this is essential if industry and civilisation are to be made to flou- rish in the country. If East Carelia should be united to Finland, the East Carelian railway, the so-called Murman railway, must natural!}- be connected with the Finnish railway system. The first step would unquestionably be a railway eastwards from Sordavala to the neighbourhood of Petrosavodsk, and afterwards other lines further north. These would include one from a suitable spot in Finland to Kem, and still more important, one from Rovaniemi, via Kemijiirvi and Kuolajarvi in Finland to Kandalaks. This would give us a good railway con- nection with the Murman Coast. The highroad communication between Fin- land and East Carelia must naturall}' also be extended and improved. FENNIA 42, No. 3. '261 Religion and Education. ReligioJi. In passing from economic to spiritual conditions, we are first of all faced with the fact that practically all the inhabitants of East Carelia belong to the Greek Catholic faith, and adhere firml}' to their hereditary form of worship. If this land shotdd be united with Finland, that condition must be scrupu- lously respected. It has certainly hitherto been taken for a potent truth that unit}^ in religion is a strength to a people. This will naturally also have a signi- ficance in the future, but difference of religion need no longer estrange people from each other, if they otherwise agree and respect each other. This is evi- denced in the greatest civilised countries of Europe. The forms and dogmas do not mean so much in the end. We all recognise the same God, and the same. Christian teaching. Love thy neighbour. The only difficulty is to follow this high teaching. It speaks well for the simple people of East Carelia that they adhere firmly to their, faith, especially when we think of the fairly general indifference to religious things which unfortunately prevails in this country. It seems, therefore, somewhat presumptuous that many hope that if East Ca- relia were to be united to Finland, the inhabitants of that country might be induced to come over to the form of faith which we confess. Our own reli- gious feelings and faith must be much stronger and more lively before we can think that we have a right to try to make proselytes for our form of worship, and to be given strength for successful work to this end. Perhaps, on the other hand, paradoxical though it maj^ sound, this diffe- rence of faith might lead to greater religious life on both sides and stimulate a spiritual awakening. It may be that the substance of Christ's \oity teaching, which is common to all, will be more strongl}' and clearly emphasised than hitherto, the forms and cults and dogtmas less. As these lost their significance and power to inflame one man agains another, the adherents of the different faiths might draw nearer together, and finally understand the real meaning of Christ's teaching, which commands »Thou shalt love thy brother». This must be the coirrse of progress, and thus must unitA' be attained, by enoble- ment, development from within, so that the best in each is preser\'ed and strengthened, not by exhorting individuals to put on another, different cloak of dogma, with other, more western embroider}-, in the false belief that this will make them better. After all that we in this country have experienced, we cannot boast of our Lutheran faith, or rely on the strength of our religious life The truth is, as I have said , that religious life is not ver>- strong here, and ■ICtQ Thendor Honien. Final Survey of ICconoiuic, Religious and Political Life. many retain only certain traditional forms of their confession, and others nothing at all. It is therefore almost a mockery of lyiither himself, to suppose that an external conversion to his teaching would benefit either the re-bap- tised or, if East Carelia should be united to this countrj-, the religious condi- tions of the new, greater Finland. Probabh- hardly anyone could maintain the former thesis, and the latter is also only an emptj- illusion, for form without the substance is no better, however great the form may grow. The East Carelian church has subordinated under the Holy Synod in Petro- grad, but many Carelians have desired long and earnestly to be free from this supremacy and to choose their own primates. The revolution in Russia has now brought the opportunity for this severance, and ii the Greek Church in Finland is made autocephalous, and the relations between our Lutheran Church and the state are also loosened, the difference of religion will put no great difficulties in the way of intimate union and cooperation in mutual confidence, between the Finnish compatriots of the east and the west of the new, enlarged Finland. The only condition necessary is that the Greek Catholics in East Carelia should be firmly convinced that the state will under no circumstances tempt or inveigle them, and still less force them, to leave their old faith and adopt the evangelist Lutheran belief, while the evangelist Lutheran subjects of Finland should show no aversion to the others, nor — as has unfortunately been not unusual in religious disputes, — any superiority or scorn for them. If the others, again, should show feelings of repulsion for the Lutherans, the latter must bear it calmly, remembering that in matters of feeling it is for the majoritj- to show calm and balance, and that the majority is mainly lespon- sible for the preservation of peace between those who differ in opinion. The majority has no need to fear any consequences if the minority should happen to give expression to illwill. The minority on the other hand always has to reckon with the possibility cf a threat pronounced by the majoritj- being car- ried into effect, and has therefore more excuse for suspicion and bitterness, and the more so, the more firmly it holds to a right which is menaced. More- over, if we on the western side of the frontier consider ourselves to be further advanced in civilisation, we ought to remember that it is the duty of higher civilisation to show greater tolerance. By the union of East Carelia with Finland, the inhabitants of the former country would gain the great advantage that they could have their religious instruction and their spiritual exercises in their own language, which would quite alter the character oi the instruction, and the spiritual edification would clearly be the more effective. The East Carelians have for centuries been denied this natural right by the Russian supremacy. FlvXXIA 4-2, No. 3 .2G3 The schools. Although the state ought not to interfere in reHgious matters further than is necessary for the protection of the right of the various permit- ted religious communities freely to exercise their worship, and for the suitable training of religious teachers, independently of creed, the state must on the other hand be responsible for public secular education, and a certain amount of technical teaching. Since the year 1900, the Russian government has established in East Care- lia a strikingly large number of elementary schools, more than in any other part of the whole Russian Empire. This was done in the interests of russifica- tion, so that the language of instruction is Russian throughout, in spite of the fact that most of the children when they first went to school, did not un- stand a word of that language. This must in an^^ event be changed, so that the instruction may be given in the children's native tongue. The same thing is true of the higher schools. The need for trade schools has alreadj- been dis- cussed. The women are particularly industrious and enterprising and good schools of housewifery would be ver}- useful to them. , The land described in the above essays is practically unknown to the world at large, and little known even to us Finns, although it immediately adjoins our own country, and its people are of the same stock as the population of Finnish Carelia. We, as friends of this sorely tried but vigorous East CareHan people, havs attempted to give a truthful picture of its present condition, its country, and its past fortunes. Its longing for freedom has grown strong, its hope of national freedom in union with Finland. Is that hope to be betrayed, or will the present remarkable time, with its violent international struggles over all frontiers, bring a happy solution of that question? Russia is at present in a state of disintegration, and it can only emerge therefrom if unencumbered by foreign nationalities. It cannot be in the fut- ure a conglomeration of numerous different peoples as it was in the past. It was that condition, together with the tj^ranny exercised to keep the different nati'onalities together, which led to its dissolution. No one should deny the just demand of the Carelians to be united with Finland, even if they believed that Russia would thereby suffer real harm. Such a course would be another great crime against the Carelian people, and a crime against all sound pro- gress, in the name of which that people is striving towards freedom and enligh- tenment. The Finnish people has been driven into the most northerly territory' of Eu- v!G4 Theodor Hutiicn. Final Survey of Economic . Religious and Political Life. rope, and there lived its life, divided in twain, and under differing conditions. The portion of that people which dwells in Finland has, under the influence of a common historic fate, coalesced with the Swedish inhabitants of that land into one people, the people of Finland. Now at last the hour seems to have come when it could be united with the Finnish people of East Carelia into a single whole. This would open a new future for our own Carelians, and the united Finnish people could develop its peculiar culture with united forces, in the conuuou service of human civilisation, - Theodor Homex. 1 "i Y, 1 ' : r * ^y^ ^g ^ 1-. .— 1— % Osr 5 8 « y? ^ / N i^ •-. ^ .^ ."3 .^ c i isj 1 1 "5 =1 <3 SI ■5" a ■5- a <3 e ■a a o •5 30 • n^ 3~ (- < <0 K K. ^ Co s w. --i Co o "^ 5u f^ <*) Q> -» <0 CM •o ^ ■ «0 «M ^ "5 * <^ o> ^ Pr /-' O v,|«. «M > tv 1 CO cs Jo' ^^ :4::^ X : ' : ; ; § A'x /'^ o : . k^ N ci. r .- - . ■ 3p\^ ^ s o ^--■\ J '^ r ^) .^ .^ Q, '^ V. k "^ n U e .§. 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